Getting France

There are many different ways of getting France, you can travel by air, by bus, or by train, all of them have enough capacity and the prices are also comfortable. You can reserve some direct passage, but other companies offer benefits on negotiation of special prices.

Now there is a easiest and exciting way to travel to France from Great Britain, with the Eurotunnel, inaugurated in 1994 now you can get France in approximately 35 minutes from Folkestone to Calais/Coquelles, you can take a car from there or you can take the classic train, the service is open 24 hours a day and the 365 days of the year.

Travelling by plane is a good option too, if you are in any of UK's regional airports it'll be cheap and easy to get to Paris, and not only the capital but also all the french cities. The competence always benefits the consumer and this is not the exception, flight operators are competing all the time for getting more passengers than the other one, the prices gets as little as possible in the market, specially when you are travelling to Nice or Paris.

There are several options available if you want to travel by train, Ports all along the south coast of England (Portsmouth, Southampton, Plymouth, Poole) will take you to Roscoff, Le Havre, Cherbourg, Caen and Dieppe in northern France, if you're travelling from London to Paris you can get there in approximately 2.5 hours, Eurostar provides a passenger service which you can join either in London at Waterloo or at Ashford in Kent. Ferries are very comfortable in France, they are equiped with restaurants, entertainment for adults and children, and places to relax.

Travel by sea is the relaxing option, you can enjoy the journey specially if you travel in summer, when the weather is perfect.

To have your passport valid is very necessary if you are planning to visit France, check if it is valid all the time you will be in this country.

Money & Costs of France

Credit and debit cards are convenient and relatively secure. Visa and MasterCard (Access or Eurocard) are widely accepted; AmEx cards are useful at more upmarket establishments. In general, all three cards can be used in shops, supermarkets, for train travel, car rentals, autoroute tolls and cash advances. Remember you'll need to know your PIN number ( le code ) to use a credit card in many hotels, shops and restaurants.

Currency
Name .................................Euro
Symbol ..............................€
Euro notes come in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500. It is often difficult to get change for a €500.00 note.

One euro is divided into 100 cents or centimes. Coins of 1, 2 and 5 centimes are copper-coloured; coins of 10, 20 and 50 centimes are gold-coloured; 1 and 2 euro coins are gold-and-silver coloured. It's a good idea to keep a supply of various coins for parking meters, laundrettes, tolls etc.

Changing Your Money
The cheapest and most convenient way to change money in France is via ATMs (known as DABs in French); they accept all the major international credit and bank cards. You get the best exchange rate by using a credit card for purchases and a debit card for cash. Travellers cheques are safe and almost universally accepted, especially in larger towns and tourist centres; they also offer better exchange rates than cash. Post offices that exchange travellers cheques give a good rate. Major train stations and fancy hotels also have exchange facilities which usually operate in the evening, at the weekend and during holidays, but the rates are generally poor.

Money Tips
The land of the €5.00 café au lait is not exactly Europe's cheapest destination, but that doesn't mean you have to break the bank to visit. Devoted scrimpers can get by on around €50.00 per day, though it means a whole lot of brie-and-baguettings in the park. For a more well-rounded culinary experience and a comfy bed or two, a minimum of €90.00 is in order. Of course, for the Dom Perignon crowd, those figures might not cover even the day's pourboires - count on dropping €200.00 and up if you're really living large. Student and senior citizen discounts are common. Whatever your budget, figure on everything being up to 50% more expensive in Paris.

When to go to France

Spring offers the best weather to visitors, with beach tourism picking up in May. Temperatures aren't too bad in autumn, although the short days mean limited sunlight and the cold starts to make itself felt towards the end of the season, even along the Côte d'Azur. Winter means playing in the snow in France's Alps and Pyrenees, though the Christmas school holidays send hordes of tadpoles in uniform scurrying for the slopes. Mid-July through to the end of August is when most city dwellers take their annual five weeks' vacation to the coasts and mountains, and the half-desolate cities tend to shut down a bit accordingly. The same happens during February and March.

Weather
France has a predominantly temperate climate, with mild winters, except in mountain areas and the northeast. The Atlantic has a profound impact on the northwest, where the weather is characterised by high humidity, often violent westerly winds and lots of rain. France's northeast has a classic continental climate, with fairly hot summers and cold winters. Midway between the two, the Paris basin boasts the nation's lowest annual precipitation, but rainfall patterns are erratic. The southern coastal plains are subject to a pleasant Mediterranean climate: frost is rare, spring and autumn downpours are sudden but brief and summer is virtually without rain. The south is also the region of the mistral , a cold, dry wind that blows down the Rhône Valley for about 100 days a year. Relentless and unforgiving in spring, it is blamed for sending people into fits of pique.

Map of France

France Travel Guide

France is the most visited country in the world. It has everything that you could ever want to see on your holidays: a great city like Paris, good beaches, more monuments than any other country, lovely nature, incredible mountain scenery; need I go on? France is also a very pleasant place to stay. It has good food, great wines and people enjoy their lives. And the best thing is, maybe apart from Paris, living in France does not have to be expensive. The North of France consists of the flatlands around the town of Lille and the Channel. The area will remind visitors in many ways of Belgium and the Netherlands. The Grand' Place in Lille for example is a lot like that of Brussels.

Paris, the city of light and its surroundings are one of the most visited areas. Paris is without a doubt one of the most beautiful cities on the planet.

West of France is turned towards the Atlantic Coast. In the north Normandy & Brittany have rolling hills, sandy beaches and quiet little harbour towns. Normandy & Brittany have a more rugged coast and many neolithic sites. It has quite a distinct atmosphere from the rest of the country; you can still sense the Celtic origin of the region and its inhabitants.

The eastern part of France consists of the Alsace, Lorraine, Franche Comt้ and Burgundy regions. The landscape has rolling hills and many beautiful cities, such as Metz, Strasbourg, Nancy and Dijon. This region produces many famous wines, including magnificent pinot noirs and chardonnays valued the world over, as well as the famous "Yellow wine" from the Jura mountain vineyard.

The Center of France is in many ways the most quiet part of France. But the great treasure of this region is the Loire valley , with many great castles and beautiful towns. Chartres with its famous cathedral and Tours rate among the most beautiful French cities.

The Alps are great for skiing in winter and hiking in summer. Albertville, Grenoble and Chamonix have all hosted the Olympic games. But the Alps also have nice towns to visit, such as Chamb้ry, Annecy or Grenoble .

The South with its lovely nature, good food, roman ruins and of course the Riviera draws a lot of visitors every year. Towns like Orange, and Arles but also big cities like Marseille and Toulon are must sees. The Provence is dotted with pleasant small villages. In the South west of France the Dordogne is one of the most quintessential French regions. The valley is so pretty, the towns are so cute and the food is so good, that it is hard to believe that the people who live here go somewhere else for their holidays. The Languedoc has its own language and culture. In the south of the Languedoc you find the Pyrenees, a great mountain range separating France from Spain, where you can hike and ski. The towns of Toulouse and Montpellier are nice and the medieval town of Carcassone is a top destination.

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Best of Germany

The Rhine
In Germany, The Rhine has a spectacular beauty and it is a popular holiday destination. There you can find impressive places to visit like castles, cathedrals, vineyards and hiking trails. Its magnificent scenery inspired a lot of painters and poets. In fact, Germany is full of castles, but the Rhine has an especially amount of important castles. Some are ruins and many of them have survived the past of the years.

Trier
Trier is located in Mosel River Valley, is known as Germany’s oldest city. The City was one of the seats of the old Roman Empire, a proof of that is the amazing ruins’ architecture. The most dominant structure is the mixture of two churches: The Dom St. Peter and the Liebfrauenkirche, both build upon ruins.

Berchtesgaden
Berchtesgadem, with its beautiful scenery, is an attractive town to visit. The city is mostly visited in winter by its ski resorts on the edge of the Berchtesgaden National Park. There is also the “Eagle’s Nest”, the famous mountain that was refuge of Hitler in the World War II, from there you have an impressive view of the Berchtesgaden area.

Wurzburg
Near from Frankfurt, Wuzburg is a vibrant university town surrounded by vineyards and full of architectural splendors. Its cultural scene includes traditions and popular events like the Mozart Festival and the Africa Festival which attract many visitors every year.

Bamberg
Bamberg is a city with an original character and a very special atmosphere. 1000 years of history are united in an Old Town that is a cultural and architectural site of European rank.

Potsdam
Potsdam, capital of Brandenburg state, is a suburb of Germany’s cosmopolitan capital: Berlin. This beautiful baroque city is home for the magnificent palace of Sanssouci that is comparable with other amazing European royal palaces like Versailles and Windsor Castle.

Getting there & around Germany

Getting There
The main arrival/departure points for flights in Germany are Frankfurt-am-Main, Munich and Düsseldorf. Frankfurt is Europe's busiest airport after Heathrow. An airport departure tax is included in ticket prices. Thanks to the spread of low-cost airlines, it is now often cheaper to fly to Germany from around Europe than to take the train. While train travel is often more expensive than catching a bus, it's generally faster, more comfortable (particularly for overnight travel) and more efficient. Germany is served by an excellent highway system connected to the rest of Western Europe. Roads from Eastern Europe are being upgraded but some border crossings are a little slow, especially from Poland. To enter Germany with a car or motorbike, you must have third-party insurance. Ferries run between Germany's northern coast and Scandinavia and the UK.

bus
There are several budget bus companies that run services to Germany from the rest of Europe and the UK. Prices are very appealing and the buses are getting more and more comfortable; if you're travelling in an off-season (when you might score some room to stretch out) or are travelling short distances, they are often a good budget option.

car
Travelling to Germany with your own car or motorcycle is easy. All you need is a valid driving licence, your car registration certificate and proof of insurance. Foreign cars must display a nationality sticker unless they have official Euro-Plates (number plates that include their country's Euro symbol). The main gateways to southern Germany are Munich, Freiburg and Passau. Coming from Poland or the Czech Republic may entail delays at the border.

Coming from the UK, high-speed Eurotunnel shuttle trains whisk cars, motorbikes, bicycles and coaches in 35 minutes from Folkestone through the Channel Tunnel to Coquelles, 5km (3mi) southwest of Calais, in soundproofed and air-conditioned comfort. From there, you can be in Aachen in about three and a half hours.

air
Frankfurt International Airport is the main gateway for transcontinental flights, although Düsseldorf and Munich also receive their share of overseas air traffic. There are also sizeable airports in Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn, Stuttgart and Freiburg (EuroAirport), and smaller ones in such cities as Bremen, Dresden, Erfurt, Hanover, Leipzig, Münster-Osnabrück, Nuremberg, Karlsruhe-Baden-Baden and Friedrichshafen.

Some of Europe's new budget airlines - Ryan Air in particular - keep their fares low by flying to some pretty odd and remote airports, some of which are little more than recycled military airstrips. The biggest of these is Frankfurt-Hahn, which is actually near the Moselle River, about 110km (68mi) northwest of Frankfurt proper.

rail
Long-distance trains connecting major German cities with those in other countries are called EuroCity (EC) trains. For longhaul trips the most comfortable option is to take an overnight train. You can choose between Schlafwagen (sleepers), which are comfortable compartments for up to three people, with washbasin; Liegewagen (couchettes), which sleep between four and six people; and Sitzwagen (seat carriage), which have roomy, reclinable seats. On daytime trains, reservations are highly recommended during the peak summer season and around major holidays. They can be made as late as a few minutes before departure.

water
The Romanshorn-Friedrichshafen car ferry provides the quickest way across Lake Constance between Switzerland and Germany.

Germany's main ferry ports are Kiel, Lübeck and Travemünde in Schleswig-Holstein, and Rostock and Sassnitz (Rügen Island) in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. All have services to Scandinavia. Ferries to the UK leave from Cuxhaven in Schleswig-Holstein. Return tickets are often cheaper than two one-way tickets.

Getting Around
Getting around Germany is easy. Domestic air travel is extensive but unless you're in an awful hurry, you might as well save your money - the German train network is wonderful. The eastern and western train systems have now been fully merged. Numerous fares and ticket passes, including Eurailpass and GermanRail Pass are available. There is usually a surcharge for the InterCity Express (ICE) trains but it's worth it to travel 300km/h (190mph) through the German countryside. Forget about buses until you're in train-unfriendly terrain.

German roads are excellent, and motorised transport can be a great way to tour the country, although most towns have problems with car-parking. The national and (in)famous motorway network known as autobahnen can be wonderful - or it can be a nightmare: speed-of-light Porsches and BMWs looming monster-size and impatient in your rear-view mirror are one factor, soul-destroying traffic jams are another. Technically there is no general speed limit on the autobahnen, but, in an effort to increase safety and curb noise pollution, many segments have speed limits ranging from 100km/hr (62mph) to 130km/hr (80mph). On other parts of the autobahn system, high performance sports cars will pass you in excess of 250 kmh (155mph). Be careful!

Bicycle touring in Germany is very popular. There are often separate cycling routes in the cities, towns and in the countryside, but cycling on the autobahnen is strictly verboten .

bus
Basically, wherever there is a train, take it. Buses are generally much slower and less dependable, less efficient and less comfortable than trains. There are, however, some regions where the terrain makes train travel more difficult or impossible; the Harz Mountains, sections of the Bavarian Forest, the Black Forest and the Alpine foothills are among such areas. Germany does not have a nationwide bus system, meaning that separate bus companies, each with their own tariffs and schedules, operate in the different regions.

The frequency of service varies dramatically, depending on the destination. It can be as little as three buses daily, and sometimes even fewer at weekends. Routes geared to commuters suspend operations altogether on weekends. If you depend on buses to get around, always keep this in mind or risk finding yourself stuck in a remote place over the weekend.

car
Motoring around Germany is an enjoyable and flexible way to see the country. German roads are generally so excellent that you're less likely to spot a pothole than a UFO. The country's pride and joy are its 11,000km (6835mi) of Autobahnen (motorways, freeways), which extend to all nooks and crannies of the land. These are supplemented by an extensive network of Bundesstrassen (secondary roads, highways). No tolls are charged on public roads. Many tertiary roads have no highway numbers and road signage is often inadequate or confusing so having a good road map a must.

bicycle
Bicycle touring through Germany is fun, popular and eminently feasible, in large part because of a dense network of lightly travelled secondary roads and dedicated bike paths. In the cities you'll often find special bike lanes and pavements separated into different sections for pedestrians and cyclists. Bicycles are strictly verboten on the autobahns but can be taken along on most trains. Germany has over 200 well-signposted long-distance routes.

air
Most large and many smaller German cities have their own airports and numerous carriers operate domestic flights within Germany.

Unless you're flying from one end of the country to the other, say Berlin-Munich or Hamburg-Munich, planes are only marginally quicker than trains if you factor in the time it takes to get to/from the airports. Fares have become more competitive in recent years but generally prices are designed with business travellers in mind.

Disabled Travellers
Overall, Germany caters well for the needs of people with disabilities ( Behinderte ), especially people who use wheelchairs. You'll find access ramps and/or lifts in many public buildings, including train stations, museums, theatres and cinemas. Newer hotels have rooms for mobility-impaired guests with extra-wide doors and spacious bathrooms. However, other disabilities (such as blindness or deafness) are not as well catered for, and German organisations representing people with disabilities continue to lobby for improvements.

The web page of the German National Tourism Office (www.germany-tourism.de) has an entire section dedicated to information about vacationing in Germany with a disability (under Travel Tips) with helpful links. Many local and regional tourism offices also have special brochures for people with disabilities. The Deutsche Bahn operates a Mobility Service Centre (tel 01805-512 512) whose operators can answer questions about station and train access, and can help you plan a route requiring minimal train changes. With one day's notice, they can also arrange for someone to meet you at the station and assist you in any way necessary. Generally, all ICE trains and most IC/EC, IR and S-Bahn trains can accommodate people in wheelchairs. Guide dogs are allowed on all trains. In cities, U-Bahns and buses are becoming increasingly wheelchair-friendly as well.

Money & Costs of Germany

Large shops, petrol stations and hotels usually take credit cards but Germans are still less credit card-friendly than other Europeans so keep a supply of cash on hand. The plethora of ATMS will kindly oblige you with adequate Euros.

Currency
Name ...................Euro
Symbol ................€
Euro notes come in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500. It is often difficult to get change for a €500.00 note.

One euro is divided into 100 cents or centimes. Coins of 1, 2 and 5 centimes are copper-coloured; coins of 10, 20 and 50 centimes are gold-coloured; 1 and 2 euro coins are gold-and-silver coloured. It's a good idea to keep a supply of various coins for parking meters, laundrettes, tolls etc.

Changing Your Money
All the major international brands of plastic - MasterCard, Visa and American Express - are becoming more widely accepted, but don't assume that you'll be able to use your card to pay for things; inquire first. ATMs are ubiquitous throughout Germany and you should have no problem accessing your credit or debit account back home. Foreign currency, including travellers cheques, can be exchanged at some banks and at exchange bureaux (eg Reisebank branches) in major cities.

Money Tips
It's easy to spend lots of money in Germany. If you stay in hostels, have some sort of rail pass and restrict yourself to cheap takeaways or prepare your own food, it's possible to get by on €50.00 a day. Those with more capacious wallets wishing to eat at mid-range restaurants most days, visit museums at will, travel freely by public transport and stay in mid-range hotels with fluffy duvets should count on dropping at least €100.00 a day. Driving will add significantly to expenses, though for three or more people car travel is cheaper per kilometre than taking the train.

When to go to Germany

Germany is a fine destination year-round, but most people visit between May and September when sunny skies are most likely and much of life moves outdoors. Beer gardens and cafes bustle at all hours; outdoor events and festivals enliven cities and villages; and hiking, cycling and swimming (in lakes or pools) are popular pursuits - at least as long as the weather plays along. Remember that rain is a possibility in any month. The flipside of summer travel is, of course, larger crowds at museums and other attractions and traffic jams at places such as Lake Constance. Accommodation needn't be hard to come by unless you're drawn to beach and mountain resorts popular with German holiday-makers.

The shoulder seasons (from March to May and from October to early November) bring fewer tourists, lower accommodation prices and often surprisingly pleasant weather. In April and May, when flowers and fruit trees are in bloom, it can be mild and sunny. Indian summers that stretch well into autumn are not uncommon.

With the exception of winter sports, activities between November and early March are likely to focus more on culture and city life. In these months, skies tend to be gloomy and the mercury often drops below freezing. On the plus side, there are fewer visitors and shorter queues (except in the winter resorts). Just pack the right clothes and keep in mind that there are only six to eight hours of daylight. In December the sun (if there is any) sets around 15:30 .

Weather
Germany is not prey to dramatic climatic extremes, although there are regional differences. The most reliably good weather is from May to October, with high summer a good bet for mid 20°C (low 70°F) shorts-and-t-shirt conditions, even in the north. Autumn is a good time to visit Germany. As the tourist scrum disperses and the forests turn golden, it's not too stifling to be active but still warm enough to leave you thirsty for a few well-deserved steins. Winter is frosty and wet, especially in the south, with snow rarely settling for long except in the high country.

Map of Germany

History of Switzerland

Switzerland may be neutral but it is certainly not flavourless. The fusion of German, French and Italian ingredients has formed a robust national culture, and the country's alpine landscapes have enough zing to reinvigorate the most jaded traveller.

Goethe summed up Switzerland succinctly as a combination of 'the colossal and the well-ordered'. You can be sure that your trains and letters will be on time. The tidy, just-so precision of Swiss towns is tempered by the lofty splendour of the landscapes that surround them.

Pre-20th-Century History
The first inhabitants of the region were a Celtic tribe, the Helvetia. The Romans appeared on the scene in 107 BC by way of the St Bernard Pass, but owing to the difficulty of the terrain their conquest of the area was never decisive. They were gradually driven back by the Germanic Altemanni tribe, which settled in the 5th century. The territory was united under the Holy Roman Empire in 1032 but central control was never very tight. That was all changed by the Germanic Habsburg family, which became the most powerful dynasty in Central Europe. Habsburg expansion was spearheaded by Rudolph I, who gradually brought the squabbling nobles to heel.

Upon Rudolph's death in 1291, local leaders saw a chance to gain independence. Their pact of mutual assistance is seen as the origin of the Swiss Confederation, and their struggles against the Habsburgs is idealised in the familiar legend of William Tell. Encouraged by early successes, the Swiss gradually acquired a taste for territorial expansion themselves and gained independence from the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1499. After a number of military victories, the Swiss finally over-reached themselves when they took on a combined force of French and Venetians in 1515. Realising they could no longer compete against larger powers with better equipment, they renounced expansionist policies and declared their neutrality.

The Reformation in the 16th century caused upheaval throughout Europe. The Protestant teachings of Luther, Zwingli and Calvin spread quickly, although central Switzerland remained Catholic. While the rest of Europe was fighting it out in the Thirty Years' War, the Swiss closed ranks and kept out of trouble. At the end of the war in 1648 they were recognised in the Treaty of Westphalia as a neutral state. Nevertheless, the French Republic invaded Switzerland in 1798 and established the Helvetic Republic. The Swiss, however, did not take too kindly to such centralised control. Napoleon was finally sent packing following his defeat by the British and Prussians at Waterloo. The ensuing Congress of Vienna guaranteed Switzerland's independence and permanent neutrality in 1815.

In 1848 a new federal constitution was agreed on and it is largely still in place today. Bern was established as the capital and the federal assembly was set up to take care of national issues. Switzerland was then able to concentrate on economic and social matters. It developed industries predominantly dependent on highly skilled labour. Networks of railways and roads were built, opening up previously inaccessible Alpine regions and helping the development of tourism. The international Red Cross was founded in Geneva in 1863 and compulsory free education was introduced.

Modern History
The Swiss have carefully guarded their neutrality in the 20th century. Their only WWI involvement lay in the organising of Red Cross units. In WWII, however, Switzerland played a more insidious role as an amenable money launderer for Nazi Germany. Switzerland's quiet anti-Semitism included shutting its borders to Jewish refugees and forcibly repatriating many of those who escaped Nazi-occupied Europe, in full knowledge of the fate which awaited them. While the rest of Europe underwent the painful process of repairing the ravages of war, Switzerland was able to expand from an already powerful commercial, financial and industrial base. Zürich developed as an international banking and insurance centre, and many international bodies, such as the World Health Organisation, based their headquarters in Geneva.

Afraid that its neutrality would be compromised, Switzerland declined to become a member of the United Nations (though it currently has 'observer' status) or NATO. It did, however, join EFTA (the European Free Trade Association). In the face of other EFTA nations applying for EU (European Union) membership, Switzerland finally made its own application in 1992.

As a prelude to full EU membership Switzerland joined the EEA (European Economic Area), yet the government's strategy lay in ruins after citizens rejected the EEA in a referendum in December 1992. Switzerland's EU application has consequently been put on ice; in the meantime the government has been laying groundwork for closer integration with the rest of Europe. In 1998 the Swiss government agreed to pay US$1.2 billion compensation to relatives of Holocaust victims whose funds were deposited in Swiss banks.

Recent History
The year 2001 was truly Switzerland's annus horribilis. The collapse of national airline Swissair, a canyoning accident in the Bernese Oberland killing 21 tourists, a gun massacre in the Zug parliament and a fatal fire in the Gotthard Tunnel within 12 months all prompted intense soul-searching.

Switzerland swung to the conservative right in its parliamentary government in 2003, and began to reach out more to the world. It finally became the 190th member of the UN, despite the UN being founded and headquartered in Geneva for aeons. In 2005 it joined Europe's 'Schengen' passport-free travel zone and, in theory, opened its borders to workers from the 10 new EU members.

It still isn't a member of the EU itself and, although the French-speaking regions would like it, doesn't look like becoming one anytime soon. However, in many ways Switzerland no longer views isolation as quite so splendid.

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History of Germany

Germany wears its riches well: elegant big-city charm, small picture-postcard towns, pagan-inspired harvest festivals, a wealth of art and culture and the perennial pleasures of huge tracts of forest, delightful castles and fine wine and beer are all there for the savouring.

Deep in the heart of Europe, Germany has had a seminal impact on Continental history. From Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire to Otto von Bismarck's German Reich, Nazism and the rise and fall of the Berlin Wall, no other nation has moulded Europe the way Germany has - for better or worse.

Pre-20th-Century History
Germany's hill-and-trough history kicked in early: from the time that everyone's favourite fossils, the Neanderthals, left their jaw-jutting remains in the Neander Valley near Düsseldorf, this joint has been in the thick of it. All of Europe's great empires got their paws into Germany, but none was ever able to count all its inhabitants as faithful subjects. Different pockets of fierce resistance met the Roman legions (50 BC to the 5th century AD), the Frankish conqueror, Charlemagne (up to the early 9th century), and Otto the Great's Holy Roman Empire (from late in the 10th century). By the time the house of Habsburg, ruling from Vienna, took control in the 13th century it was little more than a conglomerate of German-speaking states run by parochial princes.

The Habsburgs muddled on until the devastating Thirty Years War (1618-48), sparked by ongoing religious and nationalist conflicts. Europe had been simmering ever since 1517 when Martin Luther tacked 95 suggestions for improved service to his local church door in Wittenberg. It took a bloody good stoush to settle everyone down and secure the rights of both Protestants and Catholics. Germany lost a third of its population in the process. Local princes assumed complete sovereignty over a patchwork of some 300 states, which made it all too easy for Napoleon to come along in the early 19th century and start adding them to his scrapbook. The French never quite managed to subdue Prussia, which became the centre of German resistance. It was Prussia that led the 1813 war that put an end to Napoleon's German aspirations in a decisive battle at Leipzig. In 1866 Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia, annexed most of Germany, consolidating his position as the biggest wig in Europe with a resounding victory over France in 1871. The Prussian king, Wilhelm I, was instated as Kaiser and a united Germany hit the world stage for the first time.

Modern History
Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck in 1890, lingered long enough to lead Germany into WWI, then snuck off to Holland in 1918 when he realised the war wasn't going to end in a ticker-tape parade. Germany struggled with civil unrest and a disastrous peace, uniting only in dislike of the reigning Weimar Republic. Then came Adolf Hitler, an Austrian drifter and German army veteran who was able to turn general disaffection into a focused lunacy. In 1933 his National Socialist German Worker's (or Nazi) Party assumed brutal and absolute authority over Germany. Extravagant military spending and blasé border bending gave way to outright aggression, WWII, and the unrivalled horror of the Holocaust. Even the Germans were surprised by the success of their initial invasions, but by 1943 a litany of heavy losses set the tone for the sluggish march to 1945's unconditional surrender.

Postwar Germany, its cities largely rubble, was divided up between the Allies, with Britain, France and the USA consolidating the western portion into the Federal Republic of Germany, and the Soviet zone transmogrifying into the communist German Democratic Republic. This formula for division was repeated in Berlin. West Germany received massive injections of US capital, attracting many workers from the miserable economic conditions in the East until some bright Communist spark had the idea of building a wall around West Berlin and sealing the rest of the border. The Cold War's icy eye focused on Berlin. Over the next 25 years West Germany became one of the world's most prosperous nations while its communist Siamese sibling suffered. The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe has no more potent symbol than the opening of the Berlin frontier in 1989 - one of world history's better parties.

Recent History
Helmut Kohl's era as chancellor, marked by the reunification of Germany, came to an end in 1998 when a 'red-green' coalition of Social Democrats and Greens took office under Gerhard Schroeder. In 2005 Angela Merkel, a Christian Democrat at the head of a 'grand coalition' with the Social Democrats, became the first woman, the first East German and the first scientist to serve as chancellor.

Although the euphoria of reunification has subsided and there is some resentment and disaffection from both sides, Germany is working towards true unity in typically sedulous fashion. In the 1900s Germany absorbed the majority of refugees from the former Yugoslavia, and these and other immigrants have recently been the targets of racist attacks. However, the extreme right wing, although insidious and occasionally violent, is politically weak. Germany suffers from high unemployment, structural problems in the economy and fierce competition in world markets but at least so far social dislocation has been minimal. In recent years, the economic and social integration of Germany's large Turkish minority has been the subject of public debate.

For most Germans the highlight of 2006 was the FIFA Football World Cup held throughout the country, with the final (won by Italy's Azzurri)held in Berlin. Although the home side failed to win the trophy the event was hugely successful and almost totally trouble-free.

General Information
* Capital City: Berlin
* Language: German is the native language, though in urban areas knowledge of English is high particularly amongst younger people. In large cities it is usually no problem to find service people who speak English, however in villages and suburbs English may not be frequently spoken. If you are having difficulties, look for someone who appears to be a student or a business person.
* Size: Germany is a relatively large country. At 357,022 Km2 it is the 63rd largest country in the world. For comparison Germany is smaller than France and Spain but slightly larger than Poland. Germany is about 25% smaller than the US state of California.
* Population: With nearly 82 million people, Germany is the most populated country in Europe.
* Money: The official currency of Germany is the Euro. Other currencies such as the US Dollar are not generally accepted; however exchange booths and ATMs are widely available.
* Visas: US citizens do not require visas only a valid passport. Schengen visas, accepted by many European countries are valid here. For information about visas to Germany, see this list of German Embassies and Consulates.
* Religion: The Christian population of Germany is almost equally divided between Catholic and Protestants with the Catholics more dominant in the south and the Protestants more dominant in the North. About 5% of the population is Muslim, which reflects Germany’s strong ties to Turkey. Germany has a relatively large population of Jewish citizens, most having arrived relatively recently from Russia, but they make up less than 1% of the population.


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History of France

Whether it's gastronomic greatness, artistic endeavour or cultural cachet you're looking for, there's no doubt that France still sits right at the top of the European heap. France is the country for which the word chic was invented - seductive and aloof, old-fashioned and forward-looking, but always characterised by a certain je ne sais quoi .

The country that gave the world champagne, casseroles and Camembert is justly famous for its cooking, and you'll find there are plenty of places to indulge yourself. But while France is undoubtedly a place to eat and drink to your heart's content, there's much more to this fascinating country than cutting-edge cuisine.

Pre-20th-Century History
Humans have inhabited France for about 90,000 years. The Celtic Gauls arrived between 1500 and 500 BC; after several centuries of conflict with Rome, Gauls lost the territory to Julius Caesar in 52 BC, and by the 2nd century AD the region had been partly Christianised. In the 5th century the Franks (thus 'France') and other Germanic groups overran the country.

The Middle Ages were marked by a succession of power struggles between warring Frankish dynasties. The Capetian Dynasty was a time of prosperity and scholarly revivalism despite continued battles with England over feudal rights. During this period, France was also embroiled in the Crusades, a holy war instigated by the Church against non-Christians. The Capetian Dynasty waned by the early 15th century as France continued to fight England in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), which featured 17-year-old firebrand Jeanne d'Arc.

Religious and political persecution, culminating in the Wars of Religion (1562-98), continued to threaten France's stability during the 16th century. In 1572, some 3000 Protestant Huguenots were slaughtered in Paris. The Huguenots were later guaranteed religious, civil and political rights. By the early 17th century the country was held in thrall by Cardinal Richelieu, who moved to establish an absolute monarchy and increase French power in Europe.

Louis XIV (the Sun King) ascended the throne in 1643 at the age of five and ruled until 1715. Throughout his reign, he hounded the Protestant minority, quashed the feuding aristocracy and created the first centralised French state. But as the 18th century progressed, the ancien régime (old order) became dangerously out of sync with the rest of the country, and was further weakened by the Enlightenment's anti-establishment and anticlerical ideas. France's involvement in the Seven Years' War (1756-63) and the American War of Independence (1776-83) was financially ruinous for the monarchy, and the latter provided ammunition for opponents of French absolutism.

When the king tried to neutralise the power of reform-minded economists, the urban masses took to the streets. On 14 July 1789, a Parisian mob attacked the Invalides, seized weapons and stormed the Bastille prison, the ultimate symbol of the despotism of the ancien régime . At first, the Revolution was in the hands of moderates, but from this milieu emerged the radical Jacobins, led by Robespierre, Danton and Marat. They established the First Republic in 1792, holding virtual dictatorial control over the country during the Reign of Terror (1793-94), which saw mass executions and religious persecution. Ultimately the Revolution turned on its own, and many of its leaders, including Robespierre and Danton, were pruned by Madame la Guillotine.

Buoyed by a series of military victories abroad, mercurial Napoleon Bonaparte assumed domestic power in 1799, sparking a series of wars in which France came to control most of Europe. Ultimately, a disastrous campaign against Russia in 1812 led to Bony's downfall - he was banished to the tiny Mediterranean island of Elba. His escape and reinstallation as Emperor lasted 100 days before he was defeated by the English at Waterloo. The English exiled him to the remote South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. Napoleon is remembered as a great hero not so much for his military gusto but because he preserved the bulk of changes wrought by the Revolution and promulgated the Napoleonic Code, which remains the basis of the French legal system.

During the 19th century, France was characterised by inept government, quixotic wars and the founding of the Third Republic (1870). The importance of the army and the church was reduced, and separation of church and state was instituted. Around the same time, the Entente Cordiale ended colonial rivalry between France and Britain in Africa, creating a spirit of cooperation.

Modern History
France's involvement in WWI came at high cost: over a million troops were killed, large parts of the country were devastated, industrial production dropped and the franc was seriously devalued. The country fared little better during WWII, when it capitulated to Germany and the lackey Vichy government was installed. General Charles de Gaulle, France's under-secretary of war, set up a government-in-exile and underground resistance in London. France was liberated by Allied forces in mid-1944.

De Gaulle returned to Paris and set up a provisional government, but resigned as president in 1946. Emboldened by American aid, the French reasserted colonial control in Indochina, but their forces were defeated by Ho Chi Minh's cadres at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. France also tried to suppress Algerian independence. De Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and negotiated an end to the war in Algeria four years later; in the meantime, almost all of the other French colonies in Africa had achieved independence.

In May 1968, student protesters and striking workers surprised themselves and the world at large by bringing the country to a standstill. Just as anarchy was poised to engulf France, De Gaulle went on national television and told everybody to calm down, go home and leave the running of the country to him. And they did. The government then reformed the higher education system, and De Gaulle resigned as president the following year.

Resilient socialist François Mitterand was France's president from 1981 to 1995. In May 1995 he was succeeded by Jacques Chirac, who defeated the demoralised socialists and Jean-Marie Le Pen's anti-immigrant Front National (FN). A series of bombings in Paris and Lyon from July 1995 by terrorists protesting French support of the Algerian government contributed to anti-foreigner sentiment and lent a false legitimacy to the FN's racist stance.

Chirac strongly endorsed the European Union (EU), which raised his popularity, but his decision to conduct nuclear tests on the Polynesian island of Mururoa towards the end of 1995 was met with a local and international outcry. France's Pacific and Caribbean colonies have beefed up their independence rumblings, with Tahiti a recent site of particular agitation. Domestically, limits which Chirac imposed on the welfare payment system resulted in the country's largest protests since 1968. Strikes throughout the public sector over several weeks in late 1995 brought Paris to a standstill and affected the economy so badly that France's qualifications for joining the EU looked dubious.

Chirac called a snap election early in 1997, under the pretence of seeking a mandate for the final push towards meeting economic monetary union (EMU) controls. However, he did not count on the fickleness of the French people and his RPR party was ousted from government (though Chirac remains president) by an unlikely alliance between the socialists, communists and Greens.

Recent History
The nation was thrust into the international spotlight with the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, in a car accident in Paris in August 1997, and the country's first-ever World Cup victory (3-0 over odds-on favourite Brazil) in July 1998.

Presidential elections in 2002 were a shocker with racist demagogue Jean-Marie Le Pen of the FN claiming 17% of the national first round vote. In the run-off poll left-wing voters - without a candidate of their own - went for 'lesser-of-two-evils' Chirac to give him 82% of votes.
In early 2003 France was once again in the world spotlight when it insisted it would veto any UN security council resolution to go to war with Iraq. The US was rather miffed by this, and relations between France and the US remain cool.

In May 2005, a national referendum on the proposed European Constitution was soundly rejected by French voters, causing huge embarrassment to the government, and placing a considerable question mark over the country's resolutely pro-European future.

In October and November 2005, the country was rocked by several weeks of violent clashes between police and gangs of disenfranchised young people across France. The riots were sparked by the deaths of two teenagers of North-African descent who were electrocuted while apparently attempting to hide from the police, and began in the poor, ethnically-diverse banlieues (suburbs) of Paris, but quickly spread to several of the country's major cities.

In May 2007 conservative Nicolas Sarkozy convincingly defeated socialist Segolene Royale in the presidential election. The former interior minister is seen by supporters as a charismatic, dynamic leader and by opponents as a divisive, power-hungry neo-con. High on his list of priorities is rebuilding the Franco-American relationship, severely damaged by France's unreserved opposition to the Iraq War, and reinvigorating the French role in Europe.

General Information
* Capital City: Paris
* Languages: French is the native language. In touristic areas English may be spoken. However, at this time, language knowledge is not high with the French population. If you do not speak French, you may find it difficult to communicate with the locals.
* Size: France is a relatively large country. At 551,000km2 it is the 48thth largest country in the world. For comparison France is larger than Spain and Germany but smaller than the state of Texas.
* Population: With nearly 62 million people, France is one of the most populated countries in Europe. It has more citizens than the UK, but less than Germany.
* Money: The official currency of France is the Euro. Other currencies such as the US Dollar are not generally accepted, however exchange booths and ATMs are widely available.
* Visas: US citizens do not require visas only a valid passport. Schengen visas, accepted by many European countries are valid here. For information about visas to France, see this list of French Embassies and Consulates.
* Religion: The majority of the population (65-85%) is Roman Catholic. The second most popular religion in France, representing 5-10% of the population is Muslim. This is due to immigration from former French colonies in North Africa. Jewish and Protestants make up less than 5% of the population combined.



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Getting there & around Austria

Getting There
Vienna is the main air transport hub for Austria, but Graz, Linz, Klagenfurt, Salzburg and Innsbruck all receive international flights. Flights to these cities are often a cheaper option than those to the capital, as are flights to Airport Letisko (Bratislava Airport) which is only 60km (37mi) east of Vienna in Slovakia. With advance booking, no-frills airlines can be very cheap.

Travelling by bus is a cheap but less comfortable way to cross Europe. It's easiest to book with Eurolines (www.eurolines.com; Vienna tel: 798 29 00; www.eurolines.at; Graz tel: 0316 67 11 55), a consortium of coach companies with offices all over Europe.

While the bulk of Euroline buses pass through Vienna, its 14 stops in Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg, Klagenfurt and Innsbruck.

Getting to Austria by road is simple as there are fast and well-maintained motorways through all surrounding countries. There are numerous entry points into Austria by road from Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy and Switzerland. Liechtenstein is so small that it has just one border crossing point, near Feldkirch in Austria. The presence of the Alps limits options for approaching Tyrol from the south (Switzerland and Italy). All main border-crossing points are open 24 hours. Proof of ownership of a private vehicle and a driver's licence should always be carried while driving.

Austria benefits from its central location within Europe by having excellent rail connections to all important destinations. The Thomas Cook European Timetable gives all train schedules, supplements and reservations information. It is updated monthly and is available from Thomas Cook outlets.

The Danube (Donau) is a traffic-free access route for arrivals and departures from Austria. Since the early 1990s the Danube has been connected to the Rhine by the River Main tributary and the Main-Danube canal in southern Germany.

Getting Around
Transport systems in Austria are highly developed and generally very efficient, and reliable information is usually available in English. Individual bus and train Fahrplan (timetables) are readily available, as are helpful annual timetables.

Austria's main rail provider is the Österreiche Bundesbahn (ÖBB; Austrian Federal Railways; www.oebb.at), which has an extensive countrywide rail network. This is supplemented by a handful of private railways. Wherever trains don't run, a Postbus (www.postbus.at) usually does. Timetables and prices for many train and bus connections can be found online at www.oebb.at.

Cycling is a popular activity in Austria, and most regional tourist boards have brochures on cycling facilities and routes within their region. Separate bike tracks are common, not only in cities, but also in the country. The Danube cycling trail is something of a Holy Grail for cyclists, though there are many other excellent bike routes in the country.

All large cities have at least one bike shop that doubles as a rental centre. In places where cycling is a popular pastime, such as the Wachau in Lower Austria and the Neusiedler See in Burgenland, almost all small towns have a rental shop and train stations have rental facilities.

The Danube serves as a thoroughfare between Vienna and Lower and Upper Austria. Services are generally slow, scenic excursions rather than functional means of transport.

The Postbus (Post Bus) network is best considered a backup to the rail service, more useful for reaching out-of-the-way places and local destinations than for long-distance travel. Buses are fairly reliable, and usually depart outside train stations. For remote travel, plan a day or two ahead and go on a weekday; services are reduced on Saturday, often nonexistent on Sunday.


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St. Paul's Cathedral

The majestic St. Paul's Cathedral was built by Christofer Wren between 1675 and 1711. It has the largest dome in the world after the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

Early History
St. Paul's Cathedral has had an eventful history. The first records date from 604 AD, when Mellitus, Bishop of the East Saxons built the first wooden church on the summit of one of London's hills. At the end of the 7th century, it was built in stone by Erkenwald, Bishop of London.

In 962 and 1087, the Cathedral was destroyed by fires, but each time it was rebuilt. By that time, it was one of the largest cathedrals in Europe. Rebuildings and extensions in the 13th and 14th century enlarged the cathedral even more.

The Great Fire
But disaster struck again on the night of the 2nd of September 1666, when the great fire of London destroyed 4/5th of all of London, wiping 13,200 houses and 89 churches, including the St. Paul's Cathedral off the map.



Christopher Wren's Masterpiece
In 1669, Christopher Wren designed the so-called 'Great Model' for the new St. Paul's Cathedral. In this model, the cathedral was shaped like a Greek cross, with a portico, consisting of Corinthian columns, on the entrance. The model was topped by a striking large dome, the largest in the world after Michelangelo's dome of the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.
The design was approved in 1675, but it took until 1711 before the Cathedral was finally finished.


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Kensington Gardens

The gardens of the Kensington Palace cover around 105 ha or 260 acres and border Hyde Park on the east.

History
The history of Kensington Gardens started in 1689, when King William III and Mary II bought the Nottingham house in Kensington. The house was turned into a palace by Christopher Wren and the 12 acre large garden was enlarged by Queen Anne, partly by acquiring 100 acres of Hyde Park in 1705.

The garden was constantly redesigned, especially by Queen Anne and later by Queen Caroline. Queen Anne added the Orangerie, a red-brick building north of the Kensington Palace used for housing plants during winter time.

Present Form
The present form of the Kensington Gardens can be attributed to Queen Caroline, wife of King George II. She added the round pond and commissioned the Serpentine and Long Water, a large lake at the eastern end of the Kensington Gardens created from a string of ponds. Two summerhouses were added to the gardens, one of them - the Queen's temple - still exists.

Queen Victoria, who was born at the Kensington Palace added the Italian gardens and the Albert Memorial.

Sights & Attractions
The Kensington Gardens are very popular for walking and jogging. It is a more relaxing park than the adjacent Hyde Park.

Its most famous attraction is the Kensington Palace, the former home of Princess Diana. Other features of the park include a bronze statue of Peter Pan and the 180ft high Albert Memorial. It was built between 1864 and 1876 to commemorate Prince Albert I, husband of Queen Victoria.

Another attraction in the park is the Serpentine Gallery, a modern art gallery housed in a former tea pavilion. One of the latest features added to the park is the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Playground. The modern playground, one of three playgrounds in the Kensington Gardens, is themed around Peter Pan.

More Sights
Also popular are the Long Water, a large lake, the Round Pond (a favorite with remote controlled boat enthusiasts) and the sunken garden, a beautiful garden created in 1909 and based on a Tudor garden in Hampton Court. The park also features statues, among them 'Physical Energy' by George Frederick Watts (1908), 'Rima' by Jacob Epstein (1925) and 'Arch' by Henry Moore (1979).



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St. James's Palace

Long the home of many of the most famous kings and queens of England, St. James's Palace was built by King Henry VIII between 1531 and 1536.

This magnificent brick palace became the principal royal residence in 1702 when Whitehall Palace was destroyed by fire and Queen Anne moved to St. James. Even today, it’s still the “official” residence of the sovereign, even though Buckingham Palace became the new chief residence after Queen Victoria ascended to the throne in 1837. Many ceremonial court functions continue to be held here.

The History of St. James's Palace
When Henry VIII commissioned the palace in the year 1530, he chose to build it on the site of a former leper hospital for women, which had been named in honor of St. James. The original red-brick Tudor-style palace surrounded four courtyards and was one of the grandest buildings of its time, containing a Chapel Royal, gatehouse, and some State apartments. Visitors can still see Henry’s insignia at the gatehouse.

Important events in history were played out at St. James. Henry VIII’s illegitimate son died here. Anne Boleyn stayed at St. James the night after her coronation and her initials, intertwined with Henry’s, can be found on a number of fireplaces scattered throughout the palace.

It was at St. James that Mary Tudor signed the treaty surrendering Calais. Elizabeth I lived here for some time and the future Charles II and James II were both born and baptized at St James's, as were Mary of York (Mary II), Anne of York (Queen Anne) and James Francis Edward Stuart.

Queen Victoria’s wedding to Albert took place at the palace in 1840 and more than a century later, Queen Elizabeth II made her first speech here.

After the Fire
Much of the south and east portions of the palace were destroyed by fire in 1809. However, the state rooms were restored by 1813. Shortly thereafter, the four brothers of George IV were presented with four houses within the walls of the palace, including Clarence House, which is now home to Charles, Prince of Wales.

The state apartments were enlarged by famed British architect Sir Christopher Wren and later embellished by William Kent and still contain some stunning pieces of antique furnishings and tapestries from that era.

St. James's Palace Today
St. James is still a working palace though the monarchy has not lived there in quite some time. Besides Charles and his sons, the palace is also home to Princess Alexandra and Sir Angus Ogilvy and housed the Queen Mother until her death just a few years ago.

St. James's Palace is not open to the general public though visitors can view the Household Cavalry guards on the premises, like those seen at Buckingham Palace. Adjoining Queen’s Chapel is open to the public at specified times.


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Westminster Abbey

The Westminster Abbey, located near the Houses of Parliament, is more a historical site than a religious site. Since 1066, every royal coronation, with the exception of Edward V and Edward VIII has taken place in Westminster Abbey.

Burial Ground
The abbey also serves as the burial ground for numerous politicians, sovereigns and artists. The abbey is stuffed with graves, statues and monuments. Many coffins even stand upright due to the lack of space. In total approximately 3300 people are buried in the Church and cloisters. Some of the most famous are Charles Darwin, Sir Isaac Newton and David Livingstone.

History
The history of the abbey starts in 1050, when King Edward The Confessor decided to build an abbey. Only a small part of this original Norman monastery, consecrated in 1065, survived. The only representation of this original building is shown on the Bayeux Tapestry.Most of the present building dates from 1245 to 1272 when Henry III decided to rebuild the abbey in the gothic style. Large parts were later added: the Chapel of Henry VII was added between 1503 and 1512, while the two West Front Towers date from 1745. The youngest part of the abbey is the North entrance, completed in the 19th century.

The Nave
The abbey’s nave 1. is England’s highest. In the nave you find the Grave of the Unknown Warrior, a World War I soldier who died on the battlefields in France and was buried here in French(!) soil. Nearby is a marble memorial stone for Winston Churchill. His body is not, like many fellow prime ministers, buried in the abbey, but in Bladon.

The Cloyster
The Cloyster were 2. built between the 13th and 15th century. They were completely rebuilt after the Great Fire of 1298. The cloyster were used by the monks for meditation and exercise.

Chapter House
The beautiful octagonal Chapter house 3. is one of the largest of its kind in England. It has an original tile floor dating from 1250 and 14th century murals.

Henry VII Chapel
The Henry VII Chapel 4. (aka Lady Chapel), built 1503-1512, is one of the most outstanding chapels of its time, with a magnificent vault. It features a large stained glass window, the Battle of Britain memorial window. The window, which dates from 1947, commemorates fighter pilots and crew who died during the Battle of Britain in 1940.

London's Big Ben

The Houses of Parliament and the clock tower are one of London's iconic landmarks. The building is known as the Palace of Westminster and the clock tower is sometimes called St Stephen's Tower, although it is commonly referred to as Big Ben. Big Ben is actually the massive bell inside the clock tower, which weighs in at over 13 tons (13,760 kg).

The Clock Tower
The clock tower looks spectacular at night when the four clock faces are illuminated. Each dial is 23 feet square, the minute hand is 14 feet long and the figures are two feet high. A special light above the clock faces is also illuminated, letting the public know when parliament is in session.
Big Ben's timekeeping is strictly regulated by a stack of coins placed on the huge pendulum.

Big Ben has rarely stopped and even after an incendiary bomb destroyed the Commons chamber during the Second World War. The clock tower survived and Big Ben continued to strike the hours.

The chimes of Big Ben were first broadcast by the BBC on 31 December 1923, a tradition that continues to this day.

Big Ben History
The Palace of Westminster was destroyed by fire in 1834. In 1844, it was decided that the new buildings for the Houses of Parliament should include a tower and a clock. The bell was refashioned in Whitechapel in 1858 and the clock first rang across Westminster on 31 May 1859.

Just two months later, Big Ben cracked. A lighter hammer was fitted and the bell rotated to present an undamaged section to the hammer. This is the bell as we hear it today.

Why Ben?
The origin of the name Big Ben is not known, although two different theories exist.

The first is that is was named after Sir Benjamin Hall, the first commissioner of works, a large man who was known affectionately in the house as 'Big Ben'.

The second theory is that it was named after the champion of the prize ring at that time, Benjamin Caunt. Also known as 'Big Ben' this nickname was commonly bestowed in society to anything that was the heaviest in its class.

Map of Austria

Buckingham Palace

Buckingham Palace has served as the official London residence of Britain's sovereigns since 1837.
It evolved from a town house that was owned from the beginning of the eighteenth century by the Dukes of Buckingham. Today it is The Queen's official residence, with 775 rooms.

Although in use for the many official events and receptions held by The Queen, areas of Buckingham Palace are opened to visitors on a regular basis.

The State Rooms of the Palace are open to visitors during the Annual Summer Opening in August and September. They are lavishly furnished with some of the greatest treasures from the Royal Collection - paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens, Vermeer, Poussin, Canaletto and Claude; sculpture by Canova and Chantrey; exquisite examples of Sèvres porcelain; and some of the finest English and French furniture in the world.

History
George III bought Buckingham House in 1761 for his wife Queen Charlotte to use as a comfortable family home close to St James's Palace, where many court functions were held. Buckingham House became known as the Queen's House, and 14 of George III's 15 children were born there.

In 1762 work began on remodelling the house to the King's requirements, to designs by Sir William Chambers, at a cost of £73,000.

George IV, on his accession in 1820, decided to reconstruct the house into a pied-à-terre, using it for the same purpose as his father George III.

As work progressed, and as late as the end of 1826, the King had a change of heart. With the assistance of his architect, John Nash, he set about transforming the house into a palace. Parliament agreed to a budget of £150,000, but the King pressed for £450,000 as a more realistic figure.

Nash retained the main block but doubled its size by adding a new suite of rooms on the garden side facing west. Faced with mellow Bath stone, the external style reflected the French neo-classical influence favoured by George IV. The remodelled rooms are the State and semi-State Rooms, which remain virtually unchanged since Nash's time.

Many of the pieces of furniture and works of art in these rooms were bought or made for Carlton House (George IV's London base when he was Prince of Wales), which was demolished in 1827.

The north and south wings of Buckingham House were demolished and rebuilt on a larger scale with a triumphal arch - the Marble Arch - as the centrepiece of an enlarged courtyard, to commemorate the British victories at Trafalgar and Waterloo. By 1829 the costs had escalated to nearly half a million pounds. Nash's extravagance cost him his job, and on the death of George IV in 1830, his younger brother William IV took on Edward Blore to finish the work. The King never moved into the Palace. Indeed, when the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire in 1834, the King offered the Palace as a new home for Parliament, but the offer was declined.

Queen Victoria was the first sovereign to take up residence in July 1837, just three weeks after her accession, and in June 1838 she was the first British sovereign to leave from Buckingham Palace for a Coronation. Her marriage to Prince Albert in 1840 soon showed up the Palace's shortcomings. A serious problem for the newly married couple was the absence of any nurseries and too few bedrooms for visitors. The only solution was to move the Marble Arch - it now stands at the north-east corner of Hyde Park - and build a fourth wing, thereby creating a quadrangle.

Blore, the architect in charge, created the East Front and, thanks largely to his builder, Thomas Cubitt, the costs were reduced from £150,000 to £106,000. The cost of the new wing was largely covered by the sale of George IV's Royal Pavilion at Brighton. Blore added an attic floor to the main block of the Palace and decorated it externally with marble friezes originally intended for Nash's Marble Arch. The work was completed in 1847.

By the turn of the century the soft French stone used in Blore's East Front was showing signs of deterioration, largely due to London's notorious soot, and required replacing. In 1913 the decision was taken to reface the façade. Sir Aston Webb, with a number of large public buildings to his credit, was commissioned to create a new design. Webb chose Portland Stone, which took 12 months to prepare before building work could begin. When work did start it took 13 weeks to complete the refacing, a process that included removing the old stonework.

The present forecourt of the Palace, where Changing the Guard takes place, was formed in 1911, as part of the Victoria Memorial scheme.The gates and railings were also completed in 1911; the North-Centre Gate is now the everyday entrance to the Palace, whilst the Central Gate is used for State occasions and the departure of the guard after Changing the Guard. The work was completed just before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.



Credits : http://www.royal.gov.uk/

When to go to Austria

Visiting Austria at any time of year is a great experience, but remember that the season will influence what you can do. Summer is the obvious time for hiking, mountain biking and lake swimming, but ski conditions also make Austria a fantastic place for winter breaks. Festivals take place year-round, but the majority of music festivals are held between May and October.

For warm weather, aim for the months between April and October, although these two months can be changeable. Crowds and prices peak in the July and August high season, when temperatures can also climb to uncomfortable levels and many famous institutions close down, including the opera, the Spanish Riding School and the Vienna Boys' Choir. Consequently, June and September are often the best times for city trips.

You'll find cities less crowded in winter and (except in ski resorts and over Christmas and Easter) hotel prices lower, although it can get bitingly cold. Winter sports are in full swing from mid-December to late March, with the high season over Christmas and New Year and in February. Alpine resorts are very quiet or close down from late April to mid-June, and in November and early December.

Weather
Austria lies within the Central European climatic zone, though the eastern part of the country has a Continental Pannonian climate, with low rainfall, hot summers and mild winters. The Alps have high precipitation, short summers and long winters, and visitors should be prepared for all temperatures there. Seasons are distinct. Summer falls between June and August and has the highest temperatures, but also the highest levels of rainfall. Winter can bite hard, especially in December, January and February. Spring and autumn bring changeable weather, but quite often the most comfortable temperatures.

History of Austria

Austria flaunts its heritage in exuberant fashion. Vienna's bombastic Habsburg palaces and Salzburg's baroque splendour are great, but dig deeper and you'll unearth Stone Age settlements, Roman ruins and vibrant medieval festivals. You barely need to look for culture here - it waltzes right up to you.

This land of dizzying peaks, cobalt lakes and rushing rivers creates a breathtaking backdrop for outdoor pursuits. Whether you want to climb mountains in Tyrol or carve up the slopes in the Alps, freewheel along the Danube or paddle the raging Inn River, Austria's your one-stop shop!

Pre-20th-Century History
In its early years, the land that became Austria was invaded by a succession of tribes and armies using the Danube Valley as a conduit - Celts, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, Huns, Avars, Slavs all came and went. Charlemagne established a territory in the Danube Valley known as the Ostmark in 803, and the area became Christianised and predominantly Germanic.

By 1278 the Habsburgs had gained control and this mighty dynasty managed to rule Austria right up until WWI. Although the Habsburgs were not averse to using a bit of muscle, they preferred less barbaric ways of extending their territory and so Austria gradually expanded thanks to judicious real estate purchases and some politically-motivated marriages. One such marriage produced two sons: the eldest became Charles I of Spain, who mutated three years later into Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire; the younger son, Ferdinand, became the first Habsburg to live in Vienna and was anointed ruler of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. In 1556, Charles abdicated as emperor and Ferdinand I was crowned in his place. Charles' remaining territory was inherited by his son, Phillip II, splitting the Habsburg dynasty into two distinct lines - the Spanish and the Austrian.

In 1571, when the emperor granted religious freedom, the vast majority of Austrians turned to Protestantism. In 1576, the new emperor, Rudolf II, embraced the Counter-Reformation and much of the country reverted, with a little coercion, to Catholicism. The attempt to impose Catholicism on Protestant areas of Europe led to the Thirty Years' War, which started in 1618 and devastated much of Central Europe. Peace was finally achieved in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia. For much of the rest of the century, Austria was preoccupied with halting the advance of the Turks into Europe. Vienna nearly capitulated to a Turkish siege in 1683 but was rescued by a Christian force of German and Polish soldiers. Combined forces subsequently swept the Turks to the southeastern edge of Europe. The removal of the Turkish threat saw a frenzy of Baroque building in many cities, and under the musical emperor Leopold I, Vienna became a magnet for musicians and composers.

In 1740, Maria Theresa ascended the throne and ruled for 40 years - a period generally acknowledged as the era in which Austria developed as a modern state. During her reign, control was centralised, a civil service was established, the army and economy were reformed and a public education system was introduced. But progress was halted when Napoleon defeated Austria at Austerlitz in 1805. European conflict dragged on until the settlement at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15. Austria was left with control of the German Confederation but suffered upheaval during the 1848 revolutions and eventual defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. This led to the formation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867 under emperor Franz Josef and exclusion from the new German empire unified by Bismarck.

Modern History
Austria began the 20th century in prosperity but its expansionist tendencies in the Balkans and its annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 led to the assassination of the emperor's nephew in Sarajevo in June 1914. A month later, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, the Russians came to the Serbians' aid and the slaughter of WWI began in earnest.

At the conclusion of the war, the shrunken Republic of Austria was created and forced to recognise the independent states of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and Yugoslavia which had previously been under the control of the Habsburgs. The new republic suffered economic strife, which led to an upsurge in Nazi-style politics. Austria's embrace of fascism meant that German troops met little opposition when they invaded in 1938 and incorporated Austria into the Third Reich. Consequently, Austria was bombed heavily in WWII and by 1945 it had been restored to its 1937 frontiers by the victorious Allies. Occupying American, British, French and Russian troops remained entrenched for a decade before withdrawing and allowing Austria to proclaim its neutrality.

In the post-war years Austria worked hard to overcome economic difficulties and established a free trade treaty with the European Union (EU, then known as the EEC) in 1972. Apart from the election of former German army officer and UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim to the Austrian Presidency in 1986, Austrian politics became a rational zone of consensus rather than conflict. Increases in Eastern European immigration following the collapse of the Eastern Bloc resulted in the rise of the right-wing anti-immigration Freedom Party in the late 1980s. Concern among moderates has been exacerbated by the recent influx of refugees from the former Yugoslavia.

The Austrian people heartily endorsed their country's entry into the EU in a referendum in 1994 and formally joined the Union on 1 January 1995.

Recent History
In elections in 2000, the right-wing Freedom Party came in just behind the Social Democrats, forming a ruling coalition with the moderate right People's Party. Freedom Party leader and alleged Nazi sympathiser Jörg Haider handed the leadership to Susanne Riess-Passer, seen as less extreme, but the EU imposed sanctions on Austria despite the move. The Danube flooded in August 2003, sanctions were lifted in September because they were seen as counterproductive, and in November the People's Party made sweeping electoral gains at the Freedom Party's expense, but was nevertheless obliged to form a governing coalition with the latter despite divisions. Pension reforms, restitution for Holocaust crimes and strict asylum laws are some of the other issues that have dominated public debate.

In the first half of 2006 Austria held the temporary, six-month EU presidency and attempted to reinvigorate the establishment of the European Constitution. Domestically the nation was confronted by two controversial criminal matters. In March, historian David Irving was imprisoned for three years for denying the Holocaust (he was released and deported in December). In August year 18-year-old Natascha Kampusch, who had disappeared in 1998, escaped from the underground cell where she had been imprisoned. Her captor, Wolfgang Priklopil, subsequently committed suicide. Austria went to the polls later in the year and a coalition government of the centre-left Social Democrats (SPO) and the conservative People's Party was formed in January 2007, with the SPO's Alfred Gusenbauer as chancellor.

Meanwhile, Jörg Haider was elected as leader of the new Alliance for Austria's Future. After a split in the Freedom Party he once led and the defection of the majority conservatives to Haider's new political party, the far-right politician looks confident to stay in office.



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