Welcome to European Tours

The Jungfraujoch Railway

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Interlaken, which is situated on the Aare river between the beautiful turquoise lakes of Brienz and Thun, is the gateway to the Jungfrau region in Switzerland's Bernese Oberland. Cog railways run from the station at Interlaken Ost to the pretty alpine villages of Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen, Mürren and Wengen.

From Grindelwald and Wengen the cog railways continue, to converge on Kleine Scheidegg which consists of a station and a few buildings spectacularly situated on the watershed between the Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen valleys. Above Kleine Scheidegg tower the three peaks of the Eiger, Mönch and Jungfrau.

The most spectacular train journey in the region (as well as the most expensive) is from Kleine Scheidegg to Jungfraujoch which is situated on the col between the Mönch and the Jungfrau. The train leaves Kleine Scheidegg (2061 m) and climbs sharply to Eigergletscher Station (2320 m). It then enters a tunnel bored through the Eiger and Mönch to arrive an hour later at Jungfraujoch Station (3454 m) which claims to be the highest railway station in Europe.

The train stops twice in the tunnel to allow trains coming in the opposite direction to pass. At the lower stop, Eigerwand, passengers can alight from the train and look out from windows set in the Eiger North Face. At the upper stop, Eismeer, the view is across the Fiescher Glacier which flows towards Grindelwald.

The Jungfraujoch station is underground, but there are tunnels leading outside and a fast elevator to the “Sphinx” observatory and scientific laboratories (3571 m). A path across the permanent snowfields below the Mönch, with superb views towards the Aletsch glacier and back to the Jungfrau, leads to the Mönchsjochhütte (3650 m).

To get the most out of a trip to Jungfraujoch it is necessary to set out early. Good weather is essential, and if the Jungfrau is in cloud it is probably better to postpone the trip. A drop in temperature of 30 C is likely between Interlaken and Jungfraujoch so that warm clothing is required, as well as sunglasses and boots for walking on the snowfields. Although 3500 m is not particularly high, the effect of altitude is quite noticeable on the up-hill sections of the Mönchsjochhütte path.

There is a Web Cam at Jungfraujoch showing changing panoramic views of the Sphinx, the Aletsch Glacier, the snowfields and the Jungfrau.The railway company that runs the Jungfraujoch Railway also operates the Gornergrat Railway in Switzerland's Upper Valais region. This runs from Zermatt (1620 m) to Gornergrat (3130 m) and the journey is notable for its spectacular views of the Matterhorn.A range of 4000 m peaks from Monte Rosa, through Liskamm, Breithorn, Matterhorn to Dent d'Hérens is visible from Gornergrat Station.

There are several stations between Zermatt and Gornergrat and these are linked by paths as well as by the railway, so that it is possible to walk up to Gornergrat from Zermatt and take the train back or vice versa. It is also possible to walk selected sections; the walk from Riffelberg to Gornergrat is particularly spectacular.The pictures shown on this page were scanned from transparencies (Kodachrome 64 or Provia 100) at a resolution 1600×1072 pixel using a Minolta Dimage Scan Dual film scanner. The resolution was then reduced to 800×536 pixel.

Costs, money and banks

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It's hard to generalize about what you're likely to spend travelling around Europe. Some countries - Norway, Switzerland and the UK - are among the priciest places to be in the world, while in others you can live like a lord on next to nothing - Turkey, for example. The collapse of the eastern European economy means that many of the countries there appear very inexpensive if you're coming from the west. However, the absorption of a number of the previously inexpensive countries of southern Europe into the EU means their costs are becoming much more in tune with the European mainstream.

Accommodation will be the largest single cost, and can really determine where you decide to travel. For example, it's hard to find a double hotel room anywhere in Scandinavia - perhaps the most expensive part of the Continent - for much under £40/$65 a night, whereas in most parts of southern Europe, and even in France, you might be paying under half that on average. Everywhere, though, even in Scandinavia, there is some form of bottom-line accommodation available, and there's always a youth hostel on hand. In general, reckon on a minimum budget of around £10/$15 a night per person in most parts of Europe.

Food and drink costs also vary wildly, although again in most parts of Europe you can assume that a restaurant meal will cost on average £5-10/$8-15 a head, with prices at the top end of the scale in Scandinavia, at the bottom end in eastern and southern Europe. Transport costs are something you can pin down more exactly if you have a rail pass or are renting a car. Nowhere, though, are transport costs a major burden, except perhaps in Britain where public transport is less heavily subsidized than elsewhere. Local city transport, too, is usually good, clean and efficient, and is normally fairly cheap, even in the pricier countries of northern Europe. It's hard to pinpoint an average daily budget for touring the Continent, but a bottom-line survival figure - camping, self-catering, hitching, etc - might be around £15/$25 a day per person; building in an investment for a rail pass, staying in hostels and eating out occasionally would bring this up to perhaps £20/$30 a day; while staying in private rooms or hotels and eating out once a day would mean a personal daily budget of at least £25/$40. Obviously in the more expensive countries of northern Europe you might be spending more than this, but on a wide tour this would be balanced out by spending less in southern and eastern Europe, where everything is that much cheaper.

When and where you are travelling also makes a difference. Accommodation rates tend to go up across the board in July and August, when everyone is on vacation - although paradoxically there are good deals in Scandinavia during these months. Also bear in mind that in capital cities and major resorts in the peak season everything will be a grade more expensive than anywhere else, especially if you're there when something special is going on, for example in Munich during the Beer Festival, Pamplona for the running of the bulls, Siena during the Palio. These are, in any case, times when you will be lucky to find a room at all without having booked.

As for ways of cutting costs , there are plenty. It makes sense, obviously, to spend less on transport by investing in some kind of rail pass, and if you're renting a car to do so for a week or more, thereby qualifying for cheaper rates. Always try to plan in advance. Although it's good to be flexible, buying one-off rail tickets and renting cars by the day can add a huge amount to your travel budget. The most obvious way to save on accommodation is to use hostels and/or camp; you can also save by planning to make some of your longer trips at night, when the cost of a couchette may undercut the cost of a night's accommodation. It's best not to be too spartan when it comes to food costs, but doing a certain amount of self-catering, especially at lunchtime when it's just as easy (and probably nicer) to have a picnic lunch rather than eat in a restaurant or café, will save money. Bear in mind, also, that if you're a student an ISIC card is well worth investing in. It can get you reduced (usually 50 percent, sometimes free) entry to museums and other sights - costs which can eat their way into your budget alarmingly if you're doing a lot of sightseeing - as well as qualifying you for other discounts in certain cities; it can also save you money on some transport costs, notably ferries, and especially if you are over 26. For Americans there's also a health benefit, providing up to $3000 in emergency medical coverage and $100 a day for 60 days in hospital, plus a 24-hour hotline to call in the event of a medical, legal or financial emergency. If you are not a student but under 26, the Go-25 Card (or FIYTO) costs the same as the ISIC and can in some countries give much the same sort of reductions. Teachers qualify for the International Teacher Identity Card , offering similar discounts. All these cards are available from youth travel specialists such as Council Travel, STA, Usit and Travel CUTS. Basically, it's worth flashing one or the other at every opportunity to see what you can get.

The Euro
On 1 January 1999, eleven EU countries - Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain, subsequently joined by Greece - fixed their exchange rates to a new currency, the euro ( € ) , which has gradually taken over as the single currency for all of them. Euro notes and coins replaced francs, Deutschmarks, lire and the like from 1 January 2002 onward. The remaining three EU countries (the UK, Denmark and Sweden) are expected to join Euroland eventually, though their politicians may have a hard time convincing voters that this is a good idea, especially if the new currency continues to perform badly against the dollar, the yen or the pound sterling. The British government has promised a referendum before joining; Denmark had one and voted against; but attitudes in those countries are expected to change as the euro becomes established.

Prices
For countries in Europe we've quoted prices in local currency wherever possible, except in those countries where the weakness of the currency and the inflation rate combine to make this a meaningless exercise. In these cases - parts of eastern Europe and Turkey - we've used either US dollars, pounds sterling or Deutschmarks, depending on which hard currency is most commonly used within that country.

Wiring money
Having money wired from home is never cheap, and should be considered as a last resort. Funds can be sent to most countries via MoneyGram or Western Union. Both companies' fees depend on the amount being transferred, but as an example, wiring £700/$1000 will cost around £40/$60. The funds should be available for collection (usually in local currency) from the company's local agent within minutes of being sent; you can do this in person at the company's nearest office (in the UK all post offices are agents for MoneyGram), or over the phone using your credit card with Western Union. It's also possible, and slightly cheaper, to have money wired from a bank in your home country to one in Europe, but this is much slower (a couple of weeks is not unheard of) and less reliable; if you go down this route, the person wiring the funds will need to know the routing number of the destination bank. From the UK, a compromise option is Thomas Cook's Telegraphic Transfer service, available through their high street branches, which costs £15 plus one percent of the amount to be sent (minimum charge £25), and takes 1-2 days to arrive.

If you have no money in your account, and there is no one you can persuade to send you any, then the options are inevitably limited. You can either find some casual, cash-in-hand work, sell blood (not possible in all European countries), or, as a last resort, throw yourself on the mercy of your nearest consulate. They won't be very sympathetic or even helpful, but they may cash a cheque drawn on a home bank and supported by a cheque card. They might, if there's nothing else for it, repatriate you, though bear in mind your passport will be confiscated as soon as you set foot in your home country and you'll have to pay back all costs incurred (at top-whack rates). They never lend money.

Travelling in Europe

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It's easy enough to travel in Europe, and a number of special deals and passes can make it fairly economical too. Air links are extensive, but also expensive, give or take the odd charter deal in season, and with the exception of Britain, where flying is the cheapest way to reach much of the Continent. In any case, you really appreciate the diversity of Europe best at ground level, by way of the enormous and generally efficient web of rail, road and ferry connections that covers the Continent

By train
Though to some extent it depends on where you intend to spend most of your time, train is without doubt the best way to make a tour of Europe. The rail network in most countries is comprehensive, in some cases exceptionally so, and the Continent boasts some of the most scenic rail journeys you could make anywhere in the world. Train travel is relatively cheap, too, even in the richer parts of northwest Europe, where, apart from Britain (whose rail system is in a state of virtual collapse following privatization), trains are heavily subsidized, and prices are brought down further by the multiplicity of passes and discount cards available, both Europe-wide ( InterRail for those based in Europe or the British Isles, Eurail for anyone based elsewhere) and on an individual country basis. In some countries you'll find it makes more sense to travel by bus, but if you're travelling further afield buying a rail pass may still pay dividends. We've covered the various passes here, as well as the most important international routes and most useful addresses; supplementary details, including frequencies and journey times of domestic services, are given throughout the Europe guide in each country's "Travel details" section.
If you intend to do a lot of rail travel, the Thomas Cook European Timetable is an essential investment, detailing the main lines throughout Europe, as well as ferry connections, and is updated monthly. Thomas Cook also publish a rail map of Europe.

By bus
For most people on a tour of Europe, a bus is something you take when there is no train. There are some countries (Greece, Turkey and Morocco are the most obvious examples) where the trains are slow or infrequent, and the bus network more widespread. In other countries, Spain and Portugal for example, the buses are cheaper, more efficient and genereally a more comfortable option. But on the whole in Europe you'll find yourself using buses for the odd trip here and there, usually locally, since on long-distance journeys between major European cities it's generally slower, more uncomfortable and not particularly cheap, especially if you have a rail pass. If you have a limited itinerary, however, a bus pass or circular bus ticket can undercut a rail pass, especially for over-26s. The Eurolines pass is valid for unlimited travel between 47 cities in Europe and the British Isles (though, with certain exceptions, it is not supposed to be used for journeys that do not cross international frontiers). It costs £90 (£109 for over-26s) for 15 days between 16 September and 31 May, and £120/145 between 1 June and 15 September. For 30-day passes, those prices are £129/162 and £179/222, and for a 60-day pass they are £162/205 and £195/259. Alternatively, Busabout run services for their own pass holders every two or four days between April and October (May to September in Spain and Portugal), taking in the major cities of nine European countries, with add-on connections to two more, plus a link to London and through tickets from elsewhere in Britain and Ireland. Two-week Busabout passes are £149 for youth or student card-holders, £169 for others, rising to £209/229 for 21 days, £279/309 for a month, £429/479 for two months, £529/589 for three, and £629/699 for the whole season. There are also Flexipasses for any 10 or 15 days in two months (£229/255 and £329/369 respectively), 20 days in 3 months (£429/479), or 30 days in 4 months (£599/659), with additional days at £25/30. Busabout passes are available at travel agents in Britain, North America or Australasia (for further enquiries call: in the US tel 1-800/664 4046, in Canada tel 416/322 8468, in the UK tel 020/7950 1661, in Australia tel 02/9657 3333 and in New Zealand tel 09/309 8824, or check Busabout's Web site at www.busabout.com ).

Driving
In order to drive in Europe you need a full and up-to-date driver's licence . EC-approved licences, such as those now issued in Britain and Ireland, are valid throughout the EU, and in theory elsewhere in Europe too. North American and Australasian licences are also in theory valid for driving in most of Europe (in Italy, Austria and Spain you need to carry a translation of this, available from your national motoring organization), but it is better to carry an International Driving Licence, especially if you want to rent a car. These are required in some East European countries and are available from national motoring organizations for a small fee; you'll need to show your driver's licence, passport, one passport photo and proof of age (18 or over). You should also carry your vehicle registration document at all times (if the named owner is not present on the trip you'll need a letter from them authorizing use of the vehicle) and, if taking your own vehicle, be insured. Your existing insurance policy may already provide third-party cover for a certain period in Europe (this is frequently the case with British policies), but for some countries you will need to take out a supplementary policy. As proof of insurance cover, it's sensible to get hold of an International Green Card from your insurers - and it's obligatory in certain countries anyway. In case of breakdown, you can take out, at extra cost, extended cover with automobile associations, although the motoring organizations of most countries operate some kind of reciprocal breakdown agreement with members of most foreign motoring organizations, so if you are a member it's wise to have your membership documents with you as well. Your national organization can provide a list of countries with reciprocal arrangements. A nationality plate should be displayed on the rear of your vehicle, and a warning triangle (which must be displayed if you stop on the road) and first-aid kit are either required or advised throughout Europe. A fire extinguisher is obligatory in Estonia, Lithuania, Greece and Turkey. All the countries of mainland Europe drive on the right-hand side of the road, so your headlights should be adjusted accordingly, and priority to traffic coming from the right is a common rule of the road. Pretty much every country included in The Rough Guide to Europe has a decent network of main roads; only when you get onto minor roads do the differences between southern, eastern and northwestern Europe become really apparent. In most of Europe motorways are free, but in some countries tolls are levied: in Greece, Spain and Portugal these are fairly cheap; in France they cost more but the primary roads there are invariably excellent; in Italy the cost can be substantial if you're travelling long distances. Fuel prices vary from around 52¢/36p for a litre of unleaded in Poland, or 75¢/52p in Greece, Spain, Poland and the Czech Republic, to a hefty $1.20/84p in the UK and almost as much in Norway and Finland; petrol is also pricey in the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Italy, Sweden, Denmark and Germany, while in Eastern Europe it is generally cheaper. Leaded petrol is being withdrawn in most European countries, and is already unavailable in a few. Diesel is usually only slightly cheaper than gasoline; in Britain, amazingly, it actually costs more.

The alternative to taking your own car is to rent one on the spot. Compared to rates in North America, this can be expensive, and you may find it cheaper to arrange things in advance through one of the multinational chains, or by opting for some kind of fly-drive deal. If you do rent a car in Europe, rates for a small hatchback start at £140/$200 a week (depending on the country and the time of year) if you book in advance, usually more if you rent on the spot; we've given more precise details in the relevant sections of the guide but in general costs are higher in Scandinavia and northern Europe, lower in eastern and southern Europe. Unlimited mileage deals (as opposed to those where you pay a charge per kilometre) work out better value and give more flexibility. To rent a car you'll need to present your driving licence, sometimes an international driver's permit, and should be at least 21 years of age with more than one year's driving experience, though these regulations can vary some countries like Italy will not rent out a car if you don't have a credit card to put down a returnable deposit; if in doubt, check in advance with the car rental company or your home motoring organization. Note also that some firms don't allow you to take their cars across country borders

Climate and when to go to Europe

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Europe's climate is as variable as everything else about the Continent. In northwestern Europe - Benelux, Denmark, southwestern Norway, most of France and parts of Germany, as well as the British Isles - the climate is basically a cool temperate one, with the chance of rain all year round and no great extremes of either cold or hot weather. There is no bad time to travel in most of this part of the Continent, although the winter months between November and March can be damp and miserable - especially in the upland regions - and obviously the summer period between May and September sees the most reliable and driest weather.

In eastern Europe , on the other hand, basically to the right of a north-south line drawn roughly through the heart of Germany and extending down as far as the western edge of Bulgaria (taking in eastern Germany, Poland, central Russia, the Baltic states, southern Sweden, the Czech and Slovak republics, Austria, Switzerland, Hungary and Romania), the climatic conditions are more extreme, with freezing winters and sometimes sweltering summers. Here the transitional spring and autumn seasons are the most pleasant time to travel; deep midwinter, especially, can be very unpleasant, although it doesn't have the dampness you associate with the northwestern European climate.

Southern Europe , principally the countries that border the Mediterranean and associated seas - southern France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece and western Turkey - has the most hospitable climate in Europe, with a general pattern of warm, dry summers and mild winters. Travel is possible at any time of year here, although the peak summer months can be very hot and very busy and the deep winter ones can see some rain.

There are, too, marked regional variations within these three broad groupings. As they're such large countries, inland Spain and France can, for example, see a continental type of weather as extreme as any in central Europe, and the Alpine areas of Italy, Austria and Switzerland - and other mountain areas like the Pyrenees, Apennines and parts of the Balkans - have a climate mainly influenced by altitude, which means extremes of cold, short summers, and long winters that always see snow. There are also, of course, the northern regions of Russia and Scandinavia, which have an Arctic climate - again, bitterly cold, though with some surprisingly warm temperatures during the short summer when much of the region is warmed by the Gulf Stream. Winter sees the sun barely rise at all in these areas, while high summer can mean almost perpetual daylight.

There are obviously other considerations when deciding when to go . If you're planning to visit fairly touristed areas, especially beach resorts in the Mediterranean, avoid July and August, when the weather can be too hot and the crowds at their most congested. Bear in mind, also, that in a number of countries in Europe everyone takes their vacation at the same time (this is certainly true in France, Spain and Italy where everyone goes away in August). Find out the holiday month beforehand for the countries where you intend to travel, since you can expect the crush to be especially bad in the resorts; in the cities the only other people around will be fellow tourists, which can be miserable. In northern Scandinavia the climatic extremes are such that you'll find opening times severely restricted, even road and rail lines closed, outside the May-September period, making travel futile and sometimes impossible outside these months. In mountainous areas things stay open for the winter sports season, which lasts from December through to April, though outside the main resorts you'll again find many things closed. Mid-April to mid-June can be a quiet period in many mountain resorts, and you may have much of the mountains to yourselves.

Europe

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The collapse of the division between eastern and western Europe at the end of the 1980s, and the ever closer ties among the fifteen countries of the European Union - increasingly a political and cultural as well as economic union - made Europe a buzzword in the early 1990s, implying shared values and, despite all the wrangling, a broad consensus of political beliefs. Some of this is inevitably a superficial analysis, but although true European unity still remains a distant dream, developments such as the introduction of the euro, the creation of the frontier-free Schengen Group and the opening of the Channel Tunnel have done much to bring it closer.

Conventionally, the geographical boundaries of Europe are the Ural Mountains in the east, the Atlantic Coast in the north and west, and the Mediterranean in the south. However, within these rough parameters Europe is massively diverse. The environment changes radically within very short distances, with bleak mountain ranges never far from broad, fertile plains, and deep, ancient forests close to scattered lake systems or river gorges. Politically and ethnically, too, it is an extraordinary patchwork: Slavic peoples are scattered through central Europe from Poland in the north to Serbia and Bulgaria in the south; the Finnish and Estonian languages bear no resemblance to the tongues of their Baltic and Scandinavian neighbours, but more to that of Hungary, over 1000km south; meanwhile Romansch, akin to ancient Latin, is spoken in the valleys of south-eastern Switzerland, while the Basques of the Western Pyrenees have a language unrelated to any others known. These differences have become more political of late with the rise of nationalism that coincided with the fall of Communism, and borders are even now being redrawn, not always peacefully, and usually along ethnic lines defined by language, race or religion.

Where you head for obviously depends on your tastes and the kind of vacation you want: you can sample mountain air and winter sports in the Alps of France, Austria or Switzerland, lie on a beach in the swanky resorts of the south of France or Italy, or view architecture and works of art in the great cities of London, Paris, Florence or Amsterdam. Suffice to say, the lifting of restrictions on travel in eastern Europe, with only a handful of countries still requiring visas and nothing like the bureaucratic regulations there were before, means that the Continent really is there for the travelling - something manifest in the increasingly good-value rail passes which cover most of the countries in Europe. Although you may want to make a long hop or two by air, rail is indeed the way to see the Continent, highlighting the diversity of the place when you travel in a few hours from the cool temperatures of northern Europe to the rich and sultry climes of the Mediterranean. In fact, with the richness and diversity of its culture, climate, landscapes and peoples, there is no more exciting place to travel.

Map of Europe

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Arosa

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Whether you go by train or car, the long, twisting ascent up the Schanfigger Valley to Arosa is hard to forget; the route, jammed full of picture-perfect, heart-pumping scenes, crosses bridges over bottomless chasms and skirts rocky slopes that drop away thousands of feet to the valley floor. You'll also pass through a few small mountain villages, complete with old-timey scenes of Swiss farmers and their livestock. Once in Arosa itself, the ambiance remains, well, very characteristically Swiss. The public service department strives to leave an inch or so of snow over all the roads, so pedestrians can hear the crunch of snow underfoot and so cars aren't quite as loud. There's also a pond in the center of town where you can ice skate. Fifty percent of Arosa's accommodations are right on the slopes, but the other 50 percent can involve a tiresome, uphill walk to get to the lifts. If you happen to like walking, there are 25 miles of winter hiking trails that intermingle with the ski trails. Many visitors buy single-trip lift tickets and spend their day meandering back down to the village.

On the hill, beginner and intermediate skiers have plenty of terrain to explore. Arosa's 37 miles of marked trails consists of many wide groomers with just a few really steep pitches. There are hardly any trees at Arosa, so adventurous skiers can duck off the groomed trails for some powder shots. The Brüggerhorn area of the resort is also left ungroomed. Experts will find more challenging off-piste selections under the tram or by hiking off the skier's right side of the resort—just make sure you have avalanche gear and the proper training, or are with a knowledgeable guide. With a high base elevation, the snowfall here is relatively reliable.

The resort is quite spread out (as are the crowds) with 13 lifts and many on-hill restaurants. Some of these establishments rent out comfy lounge chairs, ideal for resting your legs and soaking in the eight to twelve hours of sun that shines on nice days. And free outdoor concerts are also common here: Sometimes you'll find several going on at once at different spots around the hill.

Off the hill, Arosa is typical of many Swiss towns—you won't find much of the hopping après scene you might find at bigger, American resorts. Arosa offers fairly run-of-the-mill dining options (lots of Swiss-German fare, a handful of Italian restaurants, and one Mexican joint with an interesting interpretation of nachos), a few pubs, and not much nightlife. The Casino Arosa is the one place you'll find dancing and late-night partying. Other non-skiing options include tobogganing, balloon rides, paragliding, snowshoe tours, and horse-drawn sleigh rides.

Andermatt

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Recognized as one of the steepest and most challenging resorts in Switzerland, packed with tight couloirs and gnarly pitches, advanced and expert skiers will love the relatively small resort of Andermatt. Because of its location near the northern edge of the Alps, Andermatt also catches a good deal of snow that doesn't make it to other resorts-this of course means more powder but also higher avalanche risk. Traditionally, the small size of the village has kept crowds equally small, but book your ticket now, because that could all change soon. The Egyptian development company Orascom Hotels and Development has recently gained development rights in the town and is beginning a project that will add-among other amenities-400 residential units, 50 private villas, and luxury hotels with 800 guest rooms to the village. Despite the sizeable expansion to the resort, Orascom was able to bypass Swiss laws restricting land ownership by foreigners in part because of its commitment to preserve the cultural and historic integrity of Andermatt, so even in the wave of development, there's hope that the resort's charm will remain unscathed.

Andermatt has also been in the news recently for its efforts to curtail the melting of the Gurschen Glacier, which has sunk nearly 66 feet in the past 15 years. This loss has impeded early-season access to some of the best off-piste skiing on the hill, forcing trail crews to do some fancy work with their groomers to fill the void. During the summers, the resort has also experimented by covering the glacier in giant heat- and rain-deflecting blankets designed to slow ice melting.

Expert skiers will particularly love descending from the top of the 9,800-foot-high Gemsstock, where, until recently, the Swiss military's elite alpine units trained. While the resort is particularly popular among advanced skiers, Andermatt, with 20 lifts and 51 miles of marked trails, offers something for every ability level. Beginners should head to the Gotthard area for more gentle cruisers, and intermediates will thrive on the groomers below Gemsstock.

As of now there's not much else to do in the winter in Andermatt besides ski (alpine or cross country), sled, hike, or ice skate, and the selection of restaurants and nightlife remain pretty tame. But keep your eye on this typically Swiss village as it continues to develop. And don't overlook the eye-popping vistas into the heart of the Swiss Alps, spanning some 600 different peaks.

St. Moritz

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Complete with glitz, glamour, and a rich history, St. Moritz is perhaps the most famous Swiss ski resort and certainly the most luxurious. You won't find a quaint Swiss mountain village here; the town of St. Moritz is a lit-up cosmopolitan, just as eye-popping as the sharp peaks and frozen lakes of the Engadine Valley where it lies. With much of the resort's publicity focusing on its wide array of shops, restaurants, special events, and culture, you might be tempted to spend all your time off the slopes. But the skiing shouldn't be overlooked.

The light and dry snow is consistent, and the sun shines here an average of 322 days per year. Like most Swiss resorts, the skiing at St. Moritz is mostly above tree line, with wide, groomed slopes snaking back and forth across the mountainside. This setup makes it easy for powder seekers to slide off the maintained trail for a pitch and then jump back on when their legs start to burn. And with 217 miles of trails, you'll definitely find skiing for all abilities (although intermediates will find the most suitable terrain). Because lifts here are spread out among nine different areas, you may want to pick just one region per day to explore. The Piz Nair Wall, at the top of the downhill race trail at the Corviglia area, boasts the steepest start slope of any race trail in Switzerland and will definitely please speed-seekers. More advanced skiers will also enjoy carving down the Morteratsch/Isla Persa Glacier run in the Diavolezza Bernina area (the longest run in the region). Skiing on the Corvatsch Glacier, in the Corvatsch Furtschellas area, offers some of the best views and snow quality in St. Moritz. And all of these areas have plenty of options lower down on the mountain specially designed for families with young kids.

Beyond skiing, St. Moritz offers plenty of other activities and lots of exotic attractions. The resort regularly hosts high-profile events and ski races: it has twice hosted the Winter Olympics and many other skiing and bobsled championships. You'll find the regular array of wintertime activities like cross-country skiing, skating, sledding, and hiking, plus a huge selection of more uncommon ones like winter golf. Other favorite events include the yearly Gourmet Festival (January/February), the Snow and Symphony Music Festival (March/April), horse and greyhound races on the frozen lake, and cricket and polo tournaments in the snow. Plus there's plenty of high-end shopping: St. Moritz harbors numerous retail locations for famous designers including Dolce & Gabbana, Donna Karan, Gucci, Calvin Klein, Ralph Lauren, and DKNY, to name just a handful. Go at the right time and you may even catch some familiar faces from Hollywood or royal families from around the world.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa

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The construction begun in 1173 and it must have been suspended at the completion of the third ring, around ten years later, since a subsidence of the soil of between 30 and 40 cm. had thrown the tower out of the perpendicular, causing an initial overhang of circa 5 cm. More than a century after the laying of the foundation stone, was once again begun (1275) by Giovanni di Simone, who added three more levels, correcting the axis of the Campanile. In 1284 the six stories of loggias were to all effects finished, bringing the height of the building to 48 m., and employing a technical expedient that was meant to diminish, at least optically, the effects of the inclination, accomplished by raising the galleries of the upper floors on that side.

At the time the inclination of the Tower was more than 90 cm. The tormented vicissitudes of the Tower did not, as one might expect, greatly worry those who were involved in the construction and completion. The long intervals between building activity were dictated, most likely, by the need of letting the Campanile 'rest', but above all by letting both the foundations and the ground on which they rested settle down.

In a certain sense it can be said that the subsidence of the soil and the consequent inclination had, on the whole, been foreseen. At the beginning of the 14th century the bells were placed at the sixth level, in the large opening still visible in the marble cylinder beyond the loggia. Between 1350 and 1372 Tommaso di Andrea Pisano (according to Vasari) terminated the installation of the belfry on the summit of the sixth order of loggias, increasing the correction of the axis, and thus diminishing the load on the side that was in inclination, which in the mean while had become fixed at 1.43 m.

Conceived of not only as a bell tower, but also as a belvedere for the square below - from the earliest times the loggias have served as 'grandstand' for religious events and fairs - it rises 58.36 m above the level of the foundation, just under 56 m over the level of the countryside, and its inclination, measured at the base, is over 4 m. The average subsidence of the base is 2.25 m, while the progressio of the overhang, despite all attempts so far made to bring it to a halt, is about 1.2 mm per year.

Château de Chillon

2008-06-13T00:35:00.000-07:00

The climax of a journey around Lake Geneva, and one of the highlights of a visit to Switzerland, is the stunning thirteenth-centuryChâteau de Chillon (daily: April–Sept 9am–7pm; March & Oct 9.30am–6pm; Jan, Feb, Nov & Dec 10am–5pm; last entry 1hr before closing; Fr.7; SMP; www.chillon.ch). This impressive specimen, among the best-preserved medieval castles in Europe, is in Veytaux, only about 3km south of Montreux; whether you opt for the 45-minute shoreline walk, bus #1 from Vevey or Montreux, a bike, or best of all a boat (which run year-round), your first glimpse of the castle is unforgettable – an elegant, turreted pile jutting out into the water, framed by trees and the craggy mountains. You could easily spend a half-day soaking up the atmosphere.

History
Although the scenery all around the castle is impressive enough, the location of the building is more impressive still – and is the key to its history. The mountains in front of the castle fall directly into the lake, with only the narrowest of through-routes between the sheer rock wall and the water. Directly opposite the defile, a razor-edge, sheer-sided islet rises from the water, of which only the very top is visible. This is where Chillon sits: if you were to drain the lake, the castle would teeter above an incredible drop of over 300m, as high as the Eiffel Tower. Such depths are cold and the lake’s weather is capricious, making attack from open water extremely unlikely. Equally, the road is narrow, the heights are virtually unscaleable, and there’s no other way to pass, making it impossible to avoid the castle. Whoever controlled the castle could control the traffic, and exact tolls from a position of unassailable security.

In Bronze Age times, there was no path around the lake – travellers had to climb the steep, 200m slopes at Chillon to a village on the heights above, then drop back down to rejoin the path. The Romans cut a narrow ledge along the lakeshore, and also opened up the Grand-St-Bernard pass over the Alps further south, turning the road past the unfortified islet just offshore into the only route connecting northern and southern Europe through the mountains. By the Middle Ages, the quantity of traffic meant the road had to be widened and also that a form of toll could be set up. The village above was abandoned in favour of a new town (ville neuve, today’s Villeneuve) built on open, accessible land a little way south on the valley floor. First surviving mention of a “guardian of the stronghold of Chillun” dates from 1150.

The Counts of Savoy, particularly Pierre (1203–68), made Chillon a princely residence, also developing Villeneuve into a major trading centre which poured tolls and customs duties into Chillon’s coffers – in 1283, on average, one horse rider and perhaps a dozen foot travellers were crossing the Grand-St-Bernard pass every hour of daylight, on every day of the year. Pierre’s architects and engineers transformed Chillon, rebuilding the half facing the shore as a fortress with three strong towers and a keep, and filling the half facing the water with grand halls and royal apartments. As the Savoyards extended their influence north to the Aare and began to threaten the Habsburgs, Chillon became their military and naval headquarters. The castle was both the centre of court life and a much-feared prison: when plague broke out in Villeneuve in 1348, the town’s Jews were accused of plotting with Christian accomplices to poison the water supply, and large numbers of both were tortured in Chillon’s dungeons before being burned alive. By this time, the Gotthard Pass further east was in use, and the transfer of traffic away from Chillon and the Grand-St-Bernard led to the castle’s terminal decline as a military fortress, although it remained handy as a secure jail. In 1530, the Savoyards imprisoned a Genevois scholar, François Bonivard, at Chillon for inciting the Genevois people to form an alliance with the Swiss against Savoy. They left him shackled to a pillar in the dungeons for six years, until his release in 1536, when the Bernese army swept down from the north, briefly bombarded the castle from above with their newfangled mobile artillery, and took control. The chief legacy of the Bernese bailiffs’ 200-year residency at Chillon was an abundance of painted bears (the symbol of Bern).

Fortunately for posterity, Chillon became a quiet backwater. In 1816, after Vaud had won independence from Bern, Byron (aged 28) and Shelley (24) visited the castle on their tour of the lake. A guide took them into the dungeons where Bonivard had been shackled and wove enough of a tale around him, and around the castle’s history, to catch the poets’ imagination. While bad weather grounded them in a hotel in Ouchy, Byron scribbled out his Prisoner of Chillon, a long narrative poem supposedly spoken by Bonivard (but entirely fictitious throughout), which celebrates the cause of individual liberty, and which brought Chillon to the attention of the wealthy tourists who were starting to explore the Alps. Archeologists and historians launched renovations of the crumbling infrastructure in the late nineteenth century, which restored a great deal of the castle’s original grandeur. Work to maintain the castle continues today.

Jungfraujoch railway

2008-06-13T00:31:00.001-07:00

Switzerland’s most popular (and expensive) mountain railway excursion is unmissable. Trains trundle through lush countryside south from Interlaken before coiling spectacularly up across either Wengen or Grindlewald’s mountain pastures, breaking the treeline at Kleine Scheidegg and tunnelling clean through the Eiger to emerge at the JUNGFRAUJOCH, an icy, windswept col at 3454m, just beneath the Jungfrau summit. It’s the site of the highest train station in Europe, and offers an unforgettable experience of the mountains. You’d be missing out if you decided against shelling out the exorbitant sums necessary to reach the place.

However, good weather is essential – if there’s a hint of cloud you’d be wasting your time heading up. Check the pictures from the summit, broadcast live on cable TV throughout the region, for an idea of the weather conditions, call the Jungfraujoch weather line (033/828 79 31) or ask your hotel or nearest tourist office for the latest forecasts. Remember, too, that it takes two and a half hours to reach the summit from Interlaken, and weather conditions can change rapidly. Coy though it sounds, even if you plan nothing more adventurous than looking out of the summit station window you should still bring sunglasses with you: the snows never melt up here, and if the sky is blue, the sun’s glare and glitter can be painful.

There are two routes to the top. Trains head southwest from Interlaken Ost along the valley floor to Lauterbrunnen, from where you pick up the mountain line which climbs through Wengen to Kleine Scheidegg; different trains head southeast from Interlaken Ost to Grindelwald, where you change for the climb, arriving at Kleine Scheidegg from the other direction. All trains terminate at Kleine Scheidegg, where you must change for the final pull to Jungfraujoch – the popular practice is to go up one way and down the other.

Currently, the adult round-trip fare to Jungfraujoch from Interlaken is a budget-crunching Fr.159 – the Jungfraubahnen Pass, and the broader Bernese Oberland Regional Pass, both pointlessly stop short at Kleine Scheidegg, requiring passholders to shell out an extra Fr.50 to reach the summit. One way to cut costs is to take advantage of the discounted Good Morning ticket (Fr.120; Eurail Fr.105; Swiss Pass Fr.94), valid if you travel up on the first train of the day (6.35am from Interlaken), and leave the summit by noon (or Nov–April: first or second train plus later departure permitted).

Walking some sections of the journey, up or down, is perfectly feasible in summer, and can also save plenty, with fares from intermediate points along the route considerably lower. The undiscounted Good Morning ticket from Grindelwald is Fr.103, from Lauterbrunnen Fr.102, from Wengen Fr.91, and from Kleine Scheidegg Fr.58. Excellent transport networks and vista-rich footpaths linking all stations mean that with judicious use of a hiking map and timetable you can see and do a great deal in a day and still get back to Interlaken, or even Bern or Zürich, by bedtime.

Jungfrau Region

2008-06-12T23:47:00.000-07:00

The JUNGFRAU REGION south of Interlaken is the rather uninspiring title foisted on what is perhaps the most dramatic, certainly the most memorable, mountain scenery in the whole of Switzerland. The Matterhorn may be more recognizable, Davos and St Moritz may be flashier, but the quantity and sheer scale of the awesome giants on offer here at close quarters takes your breath away.

The area is dominated by the mighty triple crest of the Eiger, Mönch and Jungfrau (Ogre, Monk and Virgin) – three giant peaks rising side-by-side to 4000m and seemingly always mentioned in the same breath. The Jungfrau is the focus, partly because it’s the highest (at 4158m), and partly because the network of mountain trains from Interlaken Ost culminates at the Jungfraujoch, a saddle below the Jungfrau peak that claims the honour of being the site of the highest train station in Europe. The ride up to the summit – dubbed the “Top of Europe” – is touted endlessly in Interlaken and beyond as being the highlight of a Swiss visit and, despite the hype, it’s not far wrong. However, plenty of equally stunning scenery is also to be had at lower altitudes. The region is focused on two valleys, which divide a few kilometres south of Interlaken. To the west is the famous Lauterbrunnen valley, celebrated with justification as the loveliest mountain valley in Europe, with its alluring resorts of Wengen and Mürren. To the east, the narrow Lütschen valley widens out on its way to the bustling town of Grindelwald, perfectly placed for its many visitors to take advantage of the hiking and skiing possibilities all around. Excellent transport around all these places – mostly trains, but also taking in cable-cars, funiculars and the odd bus – means that you can roam to your heart’s content, which, with the quality of natural scenery on offer, may take a while.

Mountain trains throughout the Jungfrau region are operated by the Jungfraubahnen (033/828 71 11, www.jungfraubahn.ch). They have a Jungfraubahnen Pass, valid for free travel on their entire network apart from the Kleine Scheidegg–Jungfraujoch section (on which passholders travel for half the full fare). The pass, valid for five consecutive days, costs Fr.133, or Fr.85 to holders of the Swiss Half-Fare Card.

Eurailers get a 25 percent discount on all Jungfraubahnen trains, except where mentioned in the guide text. Swiss Pass holders get free travel on trains to Mürren, Wengen and Grindelwald, and a 25 percent discount on journeys higher up. InterRail brings no discount at all, apart from on the few occasions mentioned in the guide text.

The Beach

2008-06-12T23:10:00.000-07:00

Most of Australia's population lives close to the coastline and the beach has long occupied a special place in the Australian identity. The Australian coastline is where three of the world's great ocean's meet: the Pacific, Indian and Southern oceans. The beach is also a place where people from all over the world meet, mix and live.

The coastline of the Australian mainland stretches more than 30,000 km. With the addition of all the coastal islands this amounts to more than 47,000 km. The coastal landscape ranges from broad sandy beaches to rocky cliffs and mangrove swamps.

A beach can be defined as a stretch of sand longer than 20 metres and remaining dry at high tide. Based on this definition, the Coastal Studies Unit at the University of Sydney has counted 10,685 beaches in Australia.

Natural formations
Over time, the waves breaking on the coast of Australia have created countless coves and caves as well as remarkable formations, such as the Twelve Apostles limestone stacks off the coast of Victoria.

Sand and silt deposits have produced long, sandy beaches such as Ninety Mile Beach in the Gippsland region of south eastern Victoria, and Western Australia's Eighty Mile Beach which is approximately halfway between Broome and Port Hedland.

History of the beach
The recorded history of people in their interaction with the beaches of Australia is peppered with disaster, tragedy, discovery and delight.In the past 600 years, visitors as far away as China, Portugal, Spain and Holland visited Australian beaches. The evidence of their visits lies in the remains of ships wrecked along the coastline as well as artefacts, cave drawings and paper maps. It has always been risky sailing in Australian waters, and so many failed to reach their destinations. The Encyclopedia of Australian Shipwrecks records more than 16,000 wrecks.
Unknown photographer, Shell necklace, from the exhibition Strings Across Time. Copyright Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery. Image courtesy of ABC.

For tens of thousands of years the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have fished the coastal waters. People on the north coast, from the Arafura Sea to the Torres Strait, used to trade with those from present day Indonesia and Papua New Guinea on the beaches of Australia. Until the present day, senior Goorewal women of New South Wales use their knowledge of the natural calendar, currents, winds and biology of the sea creatures to journey to the coast to collect shells for food. The making of necklaces from shells in family patterns has been passed down through the generations.

A place of work
For many Australians the beach is a place of work. Early occupations for people in coastal communities included pearling, oyster farming, whaling, sealing and fishing. Today, occupations associated with the coastal environment range from fishing, marine biology and national parks and wildlife rangers to the wide variety of occupations associated with the tourism industry.
Fish are a multi-billion dollar industry for Australia... - worth more than $2.2 billion to our economy every year. Fish are also a healthy source of food with Australians consuming around 16kg of fish and seafood per person each year, purchased from fish markets, supermarkets and food outlets.

The Australian Fishing Zone (AFZ) is the third largest in the world, covering nearly nine million square kilometres. It extends to 200 nautical miles from the Australian coastline and also includes the waters surrounding our external territories, such as Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, and Heard and McDonald Islands in the Antarctic.The leisure industry is a major employer of people along Australia's coastline. A safe and enjoyable visit or holiday to the beach relies on local government maintenance personnel, retailers, campground operators and hoteliers, tourism operators, and the thousands of people who staff retail food and drink outlets close to popular beaches.

As a place for leisure
There are no privately-owned beaches in Australia - beaches are public places for all to enjoy. Australians make use of the coast as a destination for relaxation and fun. Many people live close enough to a beach to visit regularly, and others use the beach for annual holidays. Popular destinations range from crowded city beaches and popular holiday spots, to quieter beaches located in coastal national parks.

Some people go to the beach simply for the sun and surf. Others go to sail, parasail, fish, snorkel, scuba dive and beach comb. Coastal sight-seeing is a very popular pursuit for Australians and international tourists as there are many scenic coastal drives with well appointed lookouts.

Beaches around the country attract large crowds for celebrations such as New Year's Eve and Australia Day. City beaches such as Manly in Sydney and Glenelg in Adelaide provide entertainment and fireworks on New Year's Eve, and on Australia Day many beaches host citizenship ceremonies and provide family entertainment. It has become traditional for international visitors who are in Sydney at Christmas time to go to Bondi Beach where up to 40,000 people visit on Christmas Day.Many international visitors spend time at some of Australia's famous beaches such as Bondi and Manly in Sydney, St Kilda in Melbourne, Surfers Paradise on the Queensland Gold Coast, Cottesloe in Perth, and Glenelg in Adelaide.

Uluru

2008-06-12T00:16:00.000-07:00

Uluru is the most famous icon of the Australian outback and a site of deep cultural significance to the Anangu Aboriginals. The 3.6km (2.2mi)-long rock rises a towering 348m (1141ft) from the pancake-flat surrounding scrub. It is especially impressive at dawn and sunset when the red rock spectacularly changes hue.

Uluru History
Debate continues on when the first Aborigines moved into the area but the best evidence suggests that it was at least 20 000 years ago.

The notes of Uluru National Park explain the Aboriginal understanding of Uluru in the following terms: 'In the beginning the world was unformed and featureless. Ancestral beings emerged from this void and journeyed widely, creating all the living species and the characteristic features of the desert landscape you see today. Uluru and Kata Tjuta provide physical evidence of feats performed during the creation period. Anangu are the direct descendants of these beings and are responsible for the protection and appropriate management of these ancestral lands.'

The arrival of Europeans in the area was part of the exploration of the centre during the 1870s. Ernest Giles travelled through the area in 1872 and named both Lake Amadeus and Mount Olga. Giles returned to the area in 1873 but was beaten to Uluru by William Gosse who sighted the monolith on 19 July and named it after the Chief Secretary of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers. Giles also was the first European to climb the rock which he did accompanied by an Afghan camel driver.

The inhospitable nature of the terrain ensured that few Europeans ventured into the region. Pastoralists were defeated by the lack of water and the only Europeans to pass through the area were trappers, miners, and the occasional missionary. The area was declared the Petermann Aboriginal Reserve in the early 1900s and this existed until the 1940s.

Ayers Rock was created a national park in 1950. In 1957 Bill Harney came to the area and in 1958, when the rock was combined with the Olgas to form the Ayers Rock National Park, he was appointed the first official curator. In 1959 a motel lease was granted near the rock and soon after an airstrip was built. In 1976 the Commonwealth Government set up the lease at Yulara and in 1983-84 the old tourist locations near the rock were closed down. In 1985 the title to the rock was handed back to the traditional owners who, in turn, granted the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service a 99 year lease on the park.

Great Barrier Reef

2008-06-11T23:08:00.000-07:00

The Great Barrier Reef includes over 2,900 reefs, around 940 islands and cays, and stretches 2,300 kms along the Queensland coastline. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is 345,000 km2, that's larger than the entire area of the UK and Ireland combined!

The reef is immensely diverse with 1,500 species of fish, 359 types of hard coral, one third of the world's soft corals, 175 bird species, six of the world's seven species of threatened marine turtle and more than 30 species of marine mammals including vulnerable dugongs.

Add to that stunning marine life are 5,000 to 8,000 molluscs and thousands of different sponges, worms, crustaceans, 800 species of echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins) and 215 bird species, of which 29 are seabirds.

The Great Barrier Reef is listed under all four natural World Heritage criteria for its outstanding universal value.

A natural investment
Protecting the reef has benefits beyond conservation - it is also an investment that helps provide security for coastal communities and provides significant benefits to the Australian economy. Reef industries, which are reliant on a healthy environment in which to operate, contributed approximately $5.8 billion to the Australian economy in 2004 and employed about 63,000 people.

Protecting our marine wonderland
Historically, the Reef has been regarded as a well-protected, pristine wonderland - a place of delicate corals, abundant fish life and a haven for other marine life. As scientists came to understand more about the reef's complexities, a different picture emerged - overfishing, land-based pollution and coral bleaching exacerbated by increased sea temperatures due to global warming are all impacting upon its natural wealth.

Immediate action was required to protect the reef because only 4.6% of the reef was fully protected. As a result of public campaigning and pressure from WWF, the Australian Government committed to a plan to protect 33% of the reef.

What does 33% protection mean?
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) zoning plan was implemented in 2004. Its most significant feature is a network of marine sanctuaries that stretch from the Park's northernmost to southern boundaries. This is the world's largest network of marine sanctuaries and covers over a third of the Marine Park - protecting over 11 million hectares.

Scientists have identified 70 different distinct biological regions in the GBRMP, representing the entire range of its plants and animals. A minimum percentage of each biological region is protected from fishing in order to maintain the health and resilience of the ecosystem and to protect the full range of biodiversity in the marine park.

How is the Reef under threat?
The amount of sediment flowing from the land into the marine park from its catchment area has quadrupled over the past 150 years due largely to grazing and cropping expansion in the catchment and loss of native vegetation and wetlands.

The reef has experienced two mass coral bleaching events - in 1998 and 2002. Bleaching was more severe in 2002, with aerial surveys finding that almost 60% of reefs were bleached to some degree.

Not only is the reef subject to high levels of fishing pressure, other fishing practices such as seafloor trawling for prawns are still permitted in over half of the marine park, resulting in untargeted fish capture (by-catch) and destruction of the seafloor.

The Prater

2008-06-11T22:49:00.000-07:00

The Prater is one of Europe's most popular fun fair. You can enjoy a magnificent view over Vienna from the giant Ferris wheel or do some sports and relax in an spacious area of parks, forest and fields.

The Prater is situated near Vienna city center and is ideal for walking, having fun, cycling, jogging or just lying on the grass. Furthermore you can find major sports and recreational facilities such as the Krieau harness racing track, the Prater Football Stadium, the Stadionbad, (a public swimming pool), the Freudenau flat racing track and the Pleasure Pavillion (Lusthaus) in the Vienna Prater.

Two further attractions of the Prater are the Vienna Wurschtlprater, a fun fair with the Giant Ferris Wheel (Riesenrad), where you can enjoy a terrific view over Vienna from 60 meters altitude and the Lilliputian Railroad (Liliputbahn), a 2.6 mile amusement park line on a auge of old steam locomotives, providing transportation to the Trade Fair grounds and to the Prater Stadium of Vienna.

The Giant Ferris Wheel (Riesenrad) was built in 1897 for the celebration of the 50th anniversary of the reign of Empereror Franz Joseph I. The Giant Ferris Wheel has 15 cabins and the upholding structure weigh a total of 430 tons and rotate at the speed of 0,65 m/sec. In 1944, at the peak of the World War II, the Giant Ferris Wheel burnt down but was rebuilt in 1945 - at the same time as St. Stephen's cathedral. The Viennese Riesenrad is the only giant ferris wheel of its time which is still in use today.

Burgtheater

2008-06-11T22:32:00.000-07:00

The Burgtheater, which is also known as Burg or "Haus am Ring" (House at Ring), is situated in Vienna's first district (Innerstadt). In 1741, Empress Maria Theresia gave an old dance parlour to Sellier, a theatre company. In 1888, Sellier moved into a nearby house designed and built by Gottfried Semper and Hasenauer. Since then, this building was used as the National Theatre.

The beautiful facade of the Burgtheater is adorned with statues of famous writers of Austria like Goethe and Schiller and some allegoric figures depicting love and hatred.

The Burgtheater obtained a worldwide reputation for brilliant dramatic art and is one of the first theaters of German speaking countries. Over the years, its theatrical company of more or less regular members has worked out a traditional style and speech characteristic of Burgtheater performances.

Belvedere Palace

2008-06-11T21:51:00.000-07:00

Two magnificient palaces of the Belvedere region lie in the middle of a magnificent park. Both Palaces were constructed for Prince Eugene of Savoy by Hildebrandt, a famous Baroque architect.

At the time they were built, the Belvedere Palaces were located outside Vienna's defensive walls but today they are a part of Vienna`s third district which is not far away from the centre of Vienna (Innerstadt). Design and architecture of the Belvedere Palaces are typical Rococo style.

In today's Vienna, both palaces house museums that features Austrian painting. The lower palace also called the "Österreichisches Barockmuseum" (Austrian Museum of Baroque Art) displays Austrian Art belonging to the 18th century. In the other, upper palace you can visit the Austrian art gallery that features a collection of 19th and 20th century Austrian paintings.

In 1803, Europe's first alpine garden was built in the huge park area of the Belvedere castle with the suggestion of Archduke Johann. Currently more than 4000 plants represent the diversified flora of the alpine ecosystem in Vienna.

The Anchor Clock (Ankeruhr)

2008-06-11T21:09:00.000-07:00

The Anchor Clock of Vienna is situated on the oldest square of Vienna, the Hoher Markt, and represents a typical Art Nouveau (jugendstil) design.

The Anchor Clock forms a bridge between two parts of the historical Anker Insurance Company's building. The clock itself is covered with mosaic ornaments. In the course of every 12 hours, twelve historical figures or pairs of figures move across the bridge. Among these figures are Joseph Haydn, medieval lyricist Walther von der Vogelweide, Empress Maria Theresa and Prince Eugen of Savoya. Every day at noon, all this figures parade is accompanied by music from the various periods.

Town Hall

2008-06-10T23:09:00.000-07:00

one of the grandest buildings in the city, Sydney’s immense Town Hall is worth a visit, if just to admire the architecture.

About the Building
Sydney's Town Hall, built in stages from 1869 to 1889, sits on ground that once served as the city’s burial ground. Designed by Tasmanian architect J.H. Willson, work commenced on the ornate building after the graveyard, which contained some 2,000 bodies, was closed because it was “too offensive” to the inhabitants of Sydney. All the bodies were supposedly exhumed and moved before construction commenced, though city officials note a stray skeleton or two has been found in the area when there’s an occasional need to dig!

Willson’s design is very high Victorian. He modeled the Town Hall on Philadelphia’s Second Empire-style City Hall. This style was very popular during the Victorian Era and the two buildings are remarkably similar.
Made from local Sydney sandstone, the excessive ornamentation popular at the time eventually caused the Town Hall to be nicknamed “The Wedding Cake Building.” (Some Sydney-ites of the 20th century even thought it should be torn down!)

Lots of Architects
Willson’s sudden death shortly after the project began prompted the hiring of a long string of architects who each contributed something to the Sydney Town Hall. Albert Bond designed the mansard roof and vestibule interior. Brothers Thomas and Edward Bradridge were responsible for Town Hall’s crowning glory, its clock tower, which upon completion and for decades afterwards, was the tallest structure in Sydney. Thomas Sapsford designed Centennial Hall, also known as “The Great Hall.”

Inside Town Hall
Inside the Great Hall is an amazingly large pipe organ, which caused great concern as far as the sturdiness of the building materials in this room. Architects feared that ceiling panels would fall on patrons during concerts – caused by vibrations from the organ – so a special metal panel system was devised for the hall. It was an engineering marvel of its time.

Plans for the organ were conceived in 1879 but it wasn’t installed until 1890. Built by William Hill and Sons, it was dedicated that same year and, ever since that time, Sydney has had a “City Organist” who is responsible for playing this beautiful instrument. After many years of wear and tear, the organ was rebuilt between 1973 and 1983 and free organ recitals are still held throughout the year.

The Town Hall was among the first buildings in Sydney to feature Australian flora as architectural decoration and visitors to the hall can browse its magnificent stained glass windows and try to recognize native flowers and animals. Be sure to see The Australia Window, located in the vestibule, and the equally as breathtaking Captain Cook Window. The stair railings also feature native flora.

Queen Victoria Building

2008-06-10T23:03:00.000-07:00

The Queen Victoria Building (QVB) is a modern shopping center located in a magnificent 19th century neo- romanesque building.

Construction
The QVB was originally built as the Queen Victoria Market and replaced an existing produce market. The building was designed by city architect George McRae and constructed between 1893 and 1898. At the time Sydney was in a deep recession and the government used the construction of this enormous building to employ a large number of craftsmen.The elaborate building is decorated with stained glass windows, wrought-iron balustrades, patterned floor tiles and large statues. Characteristic for the building are the glass roof over the central arcade and its many domes, one large and twenty smaller ones. The largest, central dome has a 20 meter diameter and consists of an inner glass dome and an exterior copper dome topped with a copula.

History
During the first half of the century the Queen Victoria Building saw many occupants come and go. The original concert hall was turned into a library and many commercial stores were converted into municipal offices.

By the 1950s the Queen Victoria Building was threatened with demolition despite its magnificent architecture. Fortunately plans to replace the fine building with a parking lot were finally abandoned in 1982 when the city council agreed to lease the QVB to the Malaysian firm Ipoh Garden Berhad for 99 years. Under the agreement, the government would create a car park under York Street and the Malaysian firm would restore the building.

The QVB Today
Four years and A$75 million later the Queen Victoria Building reopened as a shopping center. While the building was modernized with the installation of escalators and air conditioning, its historical restoration is exemplary. The tiled floors, stained glass windows, balustrades and arches are all restored with an eye for detail.

There are four shopping floors in the building with in total about 200 shops and boutiques, including retail covering fashion, jewelry, antiques and Australian crafts.

Australian Museum

2008-06-10T22:57:00.001-07:00

The oldest museum on the continent, the Australian Museum houses an impressive collection of natural history and anthropological artifacts and information from around the world, concentrating heavily on the natural history of Australia and surrounding Pacific regions.

Established in 1827 as “a Publick Museum in New South Wales where it is stated that many rare and curious specimens of Natural History are to be procured,” this Sydney museum has become one of the finest of its kind in the world.

The Collections – Yesterday and Today
In the early days of the Australian Museum, the first organizers collected unique flora and fauna for display in the museum, hoping to entertain and entice the public. The museum quickly became renowned for its unique exhibits, especially its expansive ornithology collection. Indeed, most of the early curators of the museum were taxidermists who set up animal displays that wowed visitors. Soon, however, museum officials became interested in acquiring collections for research purposes and scientists were added to the staff.

It wasn’t until about 3 decades later that curators became interested in anthropology and collecting artifacts from the indigenous peoples of Australia. Eventually, site excavations were carried out and museum’s anthropological collection grew steadily. Historical collections were also expanded, many pertaining to the colonization of Australia. Research centers were added.

Today, displays are presented thematically and the Aboriginal collection at the Australian Museum is one of the most highly-acclaimed of all the displays in this vast museum. The museum has taken a keen interest in Australia’s environments and her biodiversity, educating the public about the continent’s unique natural resources and the cultures of her people.You’ll find sections dedicated to Earth Sciences including geosciences and paleontology; invertebrates and vertebrates; evolutionary biology; environmental sciences like marine and terrestrial ecology; and a fine ethnographic collection of more than 100,000 artifacts from indigenous Australia, the Pacific Region, Asia, Africa and America. Temporary exhibits also visit the museum and change several times a year.

Education
The Australian Museum offers all sorts of special programs and educational events for every member of the family, from lectures and workshops for adults to “Scientist for a Day” programs for the little ones.Performances by local musicians and dance companies are often featured on Sunday afternoons and are suitable for visitors of all ages.

Hyde Park

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Australia’s Hyde Park, located in Sydney in the North South Wales section of the country, is named as such in tribute to London’s Hyde Park.

This park is a pretty green oasis in the middle of the city; a place for local “Sydneysiders” to hang out at lunchtime and a bevy of activity on the weekends and in the summer months.

About the Park
The land where Sydney’s Hyde Park now sits was once a racecourse and sporting ground, hosting all sorts of competitions year round. However, the park’s sporting days are long gone and the only active pursuits you’re likely to see these days are a father and son playing catch or residents and visitors enjoying a bike ride through the park.

Archibald Fountain
The central pathway through the park is stunning, lined with beautiful fig-trees that provide a natural canopy for the walkway. In the very center of Hyde Park, visitors flock to the Archibald Fountain, commemorating the collaboration of France and Australia during World War I. Carved statues of figures from Greek mythology grace the fountain, which was named for John F. Archibald, founding editor of the Australian weekly newspaper, The Bulletin.

Anzac War Memorial
The War Memorial is the other centerpiece of this pretty park. Art Deco in style, this memorial serves as a tribute to the Anzac soldiers who died during World War I. The memorial stands above the Pool of Remembrance, and underneath the monument, there is a photographic exhibition about the war.

More War Monuments
Near the Bathurst Street entrance on the west side of the park, you’ll find a 125-foot obelisk decorated in Egyptian style.Yet another war monument, donated by the Independent Order of Oddfellows and dedicated to Sydney residents who died in World War I, can be found in Hyde Park as well.Another monument which boasts a gun from the German light cruiser SMS Emden is located at the Oxford Street entrance to the park.

For a little fun while you’re enjoying the park, you can participate in a game of chess courtesy of the large play-able chess set that’s located on the western side of the park.

Entrance to the park and all the monuments is free.

National Maritime Museum

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Situated in Sydney’s Darling Harbour, the Australian National Maritime Museum is the most-visited museum of its kind on the continent. Dedicated to “opening new vistas on Australia’s history and love of the sea,” this museum is a hit with all ages.

Development of the museum began in 1984 and it opened its doors in 1991. Exhibition development centered around five display themes - Discovery, Passengers, Commerce, Leisure, and Navy.

In addition, the USA funded a gallery of US-Australian maritime links as its gift to the nation for the 1988 Bicentenary celebrations.

Exhibitions
While there are some permanent exhibitions at the museum, many wonderful visiting exhibits come and go each year. One might find displays about particular kinds of ships, pictorial histories of Australia’s role in the World Wars, or an exhibition of artwork related to the sea.
There’s also a children’s interactive Viking Village, and a magnificent replica of Captain James Cook’s discovery ship, the HM Bark Endeavour, is also on display at the National Maritime Museum.

A number of special educational programs are available to visitors. There’s storytelling and an activity area for the little ones. For the adults, lectures and tours are offered on a variety of maritime-related topics. Special tours are available as well, centering on one particular section of the museum.

The museum’s Welcome Wall is a tribute to the more than six million people who have crossed the world to settle in Australia. An internet database stores historical information about the people named on the Welcome Wall— when and how they came, who they came with and where they lived. These stories are also accessible on a computer terminal in the Museum foyer.
More than a dozen vessels are docked in the water outside the museum, ranging from a Russian submarine to a Norwegian lifeboat to a New Zealand racing cutter.

Visiting the Museum
Entrance to the main galleries of the museum is free. However, there is an additional charge for visiting the ships docked in the Darling Harbour and for any special events at the museum.
A harbourside restaurant provides family-friendly fare to visitors, including scrumptious seafood dishes.

Darling Harbour

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Darling Harbour is a large recreational area near Sydney's Central Business District. It is home to a large number of attractions including some of Sydney's most popular museums.

History
During the 19th century Darling Harbour was Australia's largest seaport. Its first wharf was built in 1811 and the port prospered until the end of the Second World War. By then Botany Bay had become Sydney's main port.The lack of container terminals led to a significant decrease in commercial activity and by the 1970s Darling Harbour started to become dilapidated. In 1984 the government of New South Wales decided to redevelop the area and in 1988, during Australia's Bicentennial Celebrations, Queen Elisabeth II officially opened the renovated Darling Harbour.

Aquarium
The once industrial area is now a pedestrianized zone with plenty of hotels, restaurants and attractions. One of the most popular attractions in the area is the Sydney Aquarium. The aquarium - home to Australia's largest collection of marine animals - boasts a 145 meter (475ft) underwater tunnel from where you can see sharks, sting-rays and other fish up close.

Museums
There are also several popular museums in Darling Harbour: the National Maritime Museum, the Motor World Museum and the Powerhouse Museum.The National Maritime Museum is dedicated to Australia's Maritime history. There are a number of permanent and temporary exhibitions covering subjects such as the arrival of the First Fleet, the immigration waves, indigenous seamanship and sea trade. There are several vessels at the museum; the largest is the Vampire, a destroyer built in 1952.The Powerhouse Museum is an interactive museum housed in a former power station. It is essentially a science museum with a focus on technology. Exhibitions cover a wide array of subjects like space, design and computers.The Motor World Museum and Gallery has a collection of almost 200 cars and motorcycles, ranging from Vauxhalls to a Model-T BP tanker and a Delorean.

More Attractions
Darling Harbour is also home to the Sydney Convention Center, Star City (a hotel-casino), HarbourSide (a complex of shops, restaurants and cafes), an IMAX theatre and a beautiful Chinese Garden. A recent addition is Cockle Bay Wharf, an entertainment precinct developed in 1998.

Location
Darling Harbour can be easily reached. It is at walking distance from Sydney's Town Hall and Queen Victoria Building. The monorail has several stops in the area and connects Darling Harbour with Sydney's CBD.

Royal Botanic Gardens

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Together with the Domain, the Royal Botanic Gardens form one large green oasis in the heart of Sydney along Farm Cove, between the Central Business District and the harbour.

The 30 hectares (75 acres) large Botanic Gardens is surrounded by the Domain, which acts as a buffer between the landscaped gardens and the city.

The Gardens
This is a very visitor-friendly park, it even has signs stating 'please walk on the grass'. It makes the Botanic Garden a great place for picnics, but it also allows you to walk close to the many magnificent trees and plants. The gardens feature a large number of plant species from Australia and abroad, displayed across a number of thematic gardens like the Palm Grove, Oriental Garden and Herb Garden. Some of the plants are very rare like the recently discovered Wollemi Pine - the 'Dinosaur tree' - and the cycads. There are also many birds and bats in the park. The Botanic Gardens are enclosed by fences and is only accessible during daytime. The Domain however can be accessed at any time.

Foundation
The Royal Botanic Gardens were founded in 1816 by Governor Macquarie as part of the governor's domain. The appointment of the first Botanist, Charles Fraser, in 1817, marked the establishment of Australia's oldest scientific institution. The gardens were expanded in 1830 with the construction of a sea wall and in 1831 they were opened to the public.

Palm Grove
Over the years different sections of the gardens developed. One of the first was the Palm Grove, established in 1851. It is one of the world's finest collections of palm trees, with more than 140 different species, including the cabbage tree palm, a Sydney native. Many of the gardens' numerous fruit bats (aka flying foxes) choose a spot high up one of these palm trees.Near the Palm Grove is the First Farm, the site of the colony's very first cultivated farmland.
In 1862 Sydney's first zoo opened in the Botanic Gardens but it relocated to Moore Park in 1883.

Garden Exhibition Palace
For Sydney's International Exhibition of 1879 the Garden Exhibition Palace - an enormous Victorian building with central dome - was constructed on the Domain. After the timber framed Palace was destroyed by fire in 1882 the two hectares of land - known as the Palace Gardens - were added to the Botanic Gardens.

Stagnation and more gardens
In 1901 a new herbarium opened, but the beginning of the 20th century marked the start of a long period of stagnation for the Botanic Gardens. It took until the last decades of the century before several more sections were developed like the Rose Garden (1988), the Herb Garden (1994) and the Oriental Garden (1997). There are many more topical gardens: the Rare and Threatened Plants Garden features plants that are rare or even on the brink of extinction; the Native Rockery displays a number of Australian native plants; the Succulent Garden features desert landscapes with plenty of cacti and the Rainforest Walk shows a variety of plants from the rain forest.

Tropical Centre
The Tropical Centre, which opened in 1990, consists of two glasshouses, one shaped as a pyramid and the other one as an arc. The glasshouse in the shape of an arc is devoted to exotic plants from tropical areas around the world. The pyramidically shaped glasshouse holds Australian tropical plants.

National Herbarium
At the eastern edge of the gardens is the National Herbarium, an important research institution which holds about a million different dried plants, including some specimens from 1770 collected by Joseph Banks, Captain Cook's botanist.

The Pond
The Botanic Gardens also features a large pond where the many ducks and other birds are fed by tourists ignoring the request to not feed them. Some of the birds found in the park are the Sacred Ibis, the Sulphur Crested Cockatoo, the White-faced Heron and the Rainbow Lorikeet.

Government House
Also on the grounds of the Royal Botanic Gardens is the Government House, the former residence of the Governor of New South Wales. The Government House grounds are open to the public. There are also architectural tours of the house, a mock castle built in 1845.
Entry to the botanic gardens is free, except for the Tropical Centre.

Harbour Bridge

2008-06-10T22:10:00.000-07:00

The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a large steel arch bridge connecting the city center with the residential areas in the north. Thanks to its sheer size and beautiful location the bridge has become one of Australia's most famous landmarks.

Conception
Plans for a bridge were already made in the 19th century and in 1900 tenders were invited. None of the 24 submitted proposals were deemed satisfactory and the plans were shelved until 1922 when the New South Wales Department of Public Works, supervised by the chief engineer John J.J. Bradfield, prepared a general design for the new bridge. This time, a worldwide tender produced a winning design by Dorman and Long, an English firm.

Construction
The design consisted of an enormous single-span bridge with four pylons. Construction of the bridge started in 1924 and by the end of 1929 construction of the arch had begun. First, the 503 meter long span was built from each shore. Long cables anchored underground held the two structures back. After the two parts joined in October 1930 the deck was built from the center out. In 1932, after 1400 men had worked on the bridge for 8 years, the bridge was finally opened.

Cost
The total cost of the bridge was $A13.5 million. The loan was finally paid off by toll fees in 1988. The toll fee is still levied, it now finances the maintenance of the harbour bridge and the construction of the harbour tunnel, built in 1992.There was also a large social cost: the Bradfield Highway leading towards the bridge cuts 'The Rocks' - Sydney's historic district - in two. Hundreds of buildings in the bridge's path were demolished. The families unfortunate enough to live there were displaced without any com- pensation, unimaginable today.

Pylon Lookout
The Sydney Harbour Bridge is not only one of the city's most photographed landmarks, it is also offers some of the best views of the city, the harbour and especially the Sydney Opera House. From the bridge's pedestrian walkway - accessible via the stairs from Cumberland Street - you have a great view towards the east (and the Opera House). The Pylon Lookout - accessible via the walkway - has an even better vantage point. From a platform close to the top of the 68 meter (223ft) high pylon you have a beautiful 360 degree view over Sydney. There's also an exhibition about the construction of the bridge inside the pylon.

BridgeClimb
The most spectacular way to visit the bridge is the popular BridgeClimb, a three and a half hour tour with a two hour walk to the top of the arch, 134 meter above sea level. Safety precautions and instructions include a 'Climb Simulator' and a blood alcohol reading. If you do have alcohol in your blood, you will not be able to participate and you will not get another chance so make sure you get there sober. There are day, twilight and even night climbs. You will not be able to take a camera with you during the climb, but the guide always takes a group photo, so you will have some souvenir.

Opera House

2008-06-10T21:58:00.000-07:00

The Sydney Opera House is a magnificent building, rightfully considered one of the wonders of the modern world. Located at a prominent location on a peninsula near Sydney's harbour, it is reminiscent of a ship in full sail leaving harbour.

The audacious design by Jørn Utzon with enormous shell-like roofs was well ahead of its time. The building became an instant iconic landmark when it was completed in 1973 and has come to represent the whole country.

Conception
The idea for the construction of an opera house arose after the Second World War, when Australians realized that the country lacked a world-class opera house. In 1954 the government of New South Wales decided a new opera house was to be built at Bennelong Point, a spectacular location at the end of the Royal Botanic Gardens. An international competition was announced, inviting architects to submit designs for a complex including two main halls, a restaurant and public meeting rooms.In December 1956 a total of 234 architects from nine different countries had submitted designs. It is thanks to the Finnish-born architect Eero Saarinen that Jørn Utzon's entry was chosen over more conventional designs. The visionary design by the Danish architect had already been dismissed by the assessment committee as 'too ambitious' but Saarinen, arriving late, convinced the committee to award Jørn Utzon first prize.

Construction
The construction was estimated to take about five years at a cost of A$7 million. Utzon, aware of possible technical problems since his design required advanced technology not yet available, requested additional time to tackle those challenges. Ignoring his request, the government pressured Utzon into starting construction in 1959, two years ahead of the architect's proposed schedule.The lack of preparation soon backfired. After the completion of the grand podium with an enormous, 86 meter (282ft) wide stair, several years were spent reworking the design of the roof, something that should have been done before ground was broken. In 1961 Utzon revised the scheme for the 'sails', defining them as slices of a sphere with a 300ft (91m) diameter. The shells were built from pre-cast concrete sections clad with white glazed tiles.Unfortunately the roof shells were too heavy for the supporting columns that were already built, so these were demolished and rebuilt. These and several other setbacks led to delays and increasing cost overruns. Utzon now faced a hostile press and a government reluctant to continue the project. Politician Robert Askin exploited the public's fears about the project's escalating costs. After he was elected premier of New South Wales in 1965, Askin attempted to force Utzon reduce costs by withholding payments. In 1966 Utzon resigned and returned to his native Denmark. He never even returned to see his masterpiece completed.

The construction of the Sydney Opera House was now handed over to a group or Australian architects. Fortunately the exterior had already been completed by then so that the impact of the altered design on the overall structure was minimal. The project was finally completed in 1973. Its total cost amounted to an astronomical A$102 million, almost 15 times the estimated budget.

Funding
Funds were largely provided by a 'Opera House Lottery'. Since public fund raising campaigns failed to produce sufficient funding, the lottery was created as an alternative source of funds in 1958, before construction had started. The lottery was prolonged as long as construction lasted.

A New Landmark
The financial problems and political disputes were soon forgotten after the Sydney Opera House opened on 20 October 1973. The opera house put Sydney on the world map, both architecturally and culturally. Its events attract some two million visitors each year, making it one of the world's most popular cultural institutions.

Frauenkirche

2008-06-10T21:47:00.000-07:00

East of the Marienplatz is the landmark which features on most of Munich's postcards: the Frauenkirche or Church of Our Lady.

The foundation stone was laid by Duke Sigismund in 1468. The building measures 109 meters (358ft) high and is 40 meters (131ft) wide. Its distinctive domes, which were built in 1525 would serve as a model for many of Bavaria's towers.

The Building
The church is huge but simple. Much of the original gothic interior has been destroyed or removed partially by contra-reformists. In the crypt, you will find the tombs of the Wittelsbach family, where many dukes and bisshops are buried.One of the most interesting things inside the church is the memorial grave in black marble of Prince Elector Kurfürst Maximilian I.

Footprint of the Devil
Also inside the church is the 'footprint of the devil'. According to the legend, the architect of the Frauenkirche, Jörg von Halsbach, promised the devil you could not see a window from the inside of the church. In return, the devil would help him build the Frauenkirche.After he completed the building, the architect led the devil to the middle of the church from where you could not see a single window, although all churchgoers would sit in an area where a lot of light came through the windows. The devil would have stamped his foot with so much rage that his footprint was visible in the stone floor.

Marienplatz

2008-06-10T21:25:00.000-07:00

Marienplatz is the heart of the city of Munich. In the Middle Ages, the square used to be a market place as well as the place where tournaments and festivities took place.

In 1807 Marienplatz's market moved to the nearby Viktualienmarkt, but the square still continued to be the city's focal point. Important public events such as tournaments or executions were still held here.The square was originally known as Schrannen but it was renamed Marienplatz (St. Mary's Square) as a way to ask Virgin Mary to protect the town from a cholera epidemic.

Mariensäule
The large column at the center of the square is known as the column of St. Mary. It was erected in 1638 to celebrate the end of the Swedish invasion. The statue is topped by a gilded statue of Virgin Mary which was sculpted earlier, in 1590 by Hubert Gerhard. At each corner of the column's pedestal is a statue of a putti, created by Ferdinand Murmann. The four putti's symbolize the city's overcoming of war, pestilence, hunger and heresy.

New Town Hall
The square is dominated by the New Town Hall (Neues Rathaus). The monumental, 79 meters (259ft) high town hall was built between 1867 and 1909 by Georg Joseph Hauberrisser in Flemish Gothic style to alleviate the overcrowded Altes Rathaus nearby.

Carillon
At 11, 12 and 17 o'clock each day, visitors can watch the famous Glockenspiel or carillon. The figures perform the Schläffertanz or cooper's dance, which was originally performed in 1517 at the Marienplatz to commemorate the end of the plague.

Fischbrunnen
Right near the Altes Rathaus is a small fountain, the Fischbrunnen or Fish Fountain. Originally designed by sculptor Konrad Knoll in 1864, the fountain was completely destroyed during World War II. It was rebuilt in 1954.

Old Town Hall
The original Old Town Hall or Altes Rathaus was completely destroyed by fire in 1460. Between 1470 and 1480, the old town hall was rebuilt in Gothic style by Jörg von Halsbach (who was also responsible for the Frauenkirche). The building was completely destroyed again during the second world war, but rebuilt afterwards following the original 15th century plans.

Römerberg

2008-06-10T21:01:00.000-07:00

The Römerberg is the central square in Frankfurt's Altstadt (Old Town). For most visitors this is the first stop on their trail.

Trade Fairs
Starting in the 12th century, large trade fairs were held on the Römerberg, drawing visitors and merchants from as far as Italy and France. Some of the fairs like the Frankfurt Book Fair are still being held, although they moved a long time ago from the square to new facilities. The Römerberg was also the site of all kind of festivities, most importantly those celebrating the coronation of the Holy Roman Emperors, who were crowned in the town hall, the 'Zum Römer' or Römer in short.

Ostzeile
The east side of the square, opposite the Römer is known as the Ostzeile. This row of picturesque half-timbered houses are reconstructions of the original 15th and 16th century houses. In March of 1944 bombardments flattened the whole historic district, including the Römerberg. Some of the historic buildings, like the Römer, were reconstructed soon after the war. The Ostzeile however wasn't rebuilt until 1983.

Historisches Museum
Models of the Römerberg can be seen at the Historisches Museum, just south of the Römerberg. It shows the history of Frankfurt, including the destruction after the war. The museum also features a large model of the city in the Middle Ages.

Alte Nikolaikirche
In front of the Historisches Museum is the Alte Nikolaikirche, a small early gothic church built in 1290. It was used as the court chapel for the emperors until the 15th century. A carillon of 35 bells chimes every day at 9:05, 12:05 and 17:05.

Fountain of Justice
The Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen (Fountain of Justice) at the center of the square was built in 1543. The statue of goddess Justitia, holding the scales of justice but without her usual blindfold, faces the Römer.

Frauenkirche

2008-06-10T20:37:00.000-07:00

For almost 50 years, the Frauenkirche or Church of our Lady was nothing more than a pile of rubble after being destroyed in 1945, but now the reconstructed church's enormous dome dominates Dresden's cityscape once again.

Already in the 11th century a church stood at the site of today's Frauenkirche but early 18th century the church had become too small for Dresden's growing population so in 1722 the city's town council decided to build a new and larger church.

The Building
George Bähr, Dresden's master carpenter, designed an impressive 95m (311ft) high baroque church with a stone dome, 23.5m (77ft) in diameter, on a square ground plan.Construction of the Frauenkirche started in 1726 and the church was consecrated just 7 years later, in 1734. The dome, which became known as the 'stone bell', was finished in 1738. In 1743, the whole building was completed. The magnificent church, boasting the largest dome north of the alps soon became a world-known symbol of the city.

Collapse and Reconstruction
The Frauenkirche seemed to miraculously survive the heavy allied bombings and subsequent fires of February 13, 1945, but on the 15th, after the building's sandstone had started to cool down, the whole building collapsed.That same year the local church started a campaign to gather donations for a reconstruction of the Frauenkirche, but those efforts were halted soon after the end of the war. 45 Years later, shortly after the fall of the Iron Curtain, Dresden citizens started a new initiative aimed at reconstructing the city's most renowned building. The church of Saxony and the city of Dresden soon supported the initiative and in 1993 reconstruction of the Frauenkirche finally started.That year all the rubble was sorted and put on shelves, so that as much of the original stones could be reused. Those stones can be easily identified on the now brand new looking church: they have a much darker tone than the new sandstones.

Donations
Most of the funds for the reconstruction came from donations. The most symbolic is the new replica of the 4,7m high steeple cross, donated by a group of British donors.

Re-consecration
The reconstructed Frauenkirche was consecrated on October 30, 2005, just in time for Dresden's 800th anniversary in 2006.

Zwinger

2008-06-10T20:19:00.000-07:00

The Zwinger is Dresden's most famous landmark. This baroque complex of pavilions and galleries was - like many of the city's most prominent buildings - commissioned by Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony.

The name 'zwinger' means 'interspace' and originates from its location between former city fortifications.The Zwinger, with its large inner courtyard, was used for court festivities, tournaments and fireworks.

The Building
The complex was built between 1710 and 1732 after a design by Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann in collaboration with sculptor Balthasar Permoser. The Zwinger includes six pavilions connected by large galleries. The most impressive pavilions are the Rampart (wall) Pavilion and the Glockenspiel (carillon) pavilion.

Rampart and Glockenspielpavilion
The sculptured Rampart Pavilion is topped by a statue of Hercules. The almost symmetric Glockenspielpavilion at the other end of the courtyard was originally named Stadtpavilion but it was renamed after a carillon was installed between 1924 and 1936.

Crown Gate
The best known feature of the Zwinger is the Kronentor or Crown Gate, a baroque gate topped by a large crown. The statues in the gate's niches represent the four seasons. Near the Rampart pavilion is the Nymphenbad, a small enclosed courtyard with a baroque fountain featuring numerous statues of nymphs and tritons.

Picture Gallery
Originally the Zwinger had only three wings, the courtyard opened up towards the Elbe river. After the completion of the Semper Opera House in 1841 Gottfried Semper closed the courtyard by adding a gallery in Renaissance style. Construction of this new wing started in 1847.The wing is known as the Picture Gallery as it houses the Gemäldegalerie Alter Meister (Old Masters Gallery), a museum with top-class works from famous artists like van Dijck, Vermeer, Rubens, Titian and Raphael (the Sistine Madonna).The wing also houses another museum, the Rüstkammer or Historical Museum, an armory with a large collection of weaponry from the 15th to the 18th century, including many weapons and harnesses used by the Saxon rulers.

More Museums
There are several other museums in the Zwinger's other wings, including the Porzellansammlung, a porcelain collection, located in the gallery left of the Crown Gate.The Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon, near the Rampart Pavilion is a museum displaying a collection of scientific instruments including sextants, clocks and globes.

Entering the Zwinger
The main entrance of the Zwinger complex is the Crown Gate at the Ostra-Allee, but you can also enter via the Theaterplatz through a passage in the Picture Gallery.

Haus der Kulturen der Welt

2008-06-10T02:27:00.000-07:00

The House of World Cultures (Haus Der Kulturen Der Welt) was built in post-war Berlin, Germany with the purpose of serving as “a symbol and beacon of freedom” and to promote the importance of respecting one another’s cultural differences.

Building the House of World Cultures
The building constructed for the House of World Cultures was the United States’ contribution to the INTERBAU 1957 building exhibition in Berlin. The U.S. was one of 22 countries that participated in this international building endeavor, which helped new buildings spring up in the totally destroyed Hansa Quarter of the city.

The design of the building was by architect Hugh Stubbins, who first began tackling the project in 1955. It was Stubbins’ desire to produce a venue that would be host to cultural events and congresses.

Stubbins hoped that the curved roof on the Haus Der Kulturen Der Welt would resemble wings and symbolize the promise that there would be “no restrictions on the freedom of intellectual work.” Residents, however, have likened the curved roof to the body of a “pregnant oyster”, which in German has earned the building the nickname "Schwangere Auster."
Unfortunately, the signature curved roof collapsed in 1980 but was rebuilt, retaining its original shape but with extra supports to ensure that the collapse would not reoccur.

What’s There?
Currently, the House of World Cultures is home to temporary exhibitions on global cultures and non-European avant-garde art. Presentation of films, theatre and dance performances, lectures, concerts and congresses are also held on the stages and halls inside this vast building. A number of individuals who are at the forefront of non-European political and cultural scenes have been guests at the venue.

The Berlin Tourist Authority estimates that about 350,000 visitors per year head to Haus Der Kulturen Der Welt to enjoy the unique multi-cultural offerings. The attraction is also home to an excellent gift shop that sells a large number of “world” items, including books, CDs, DVDs, and much more.

Holocaust Memorial

2008-06-10T02:15:00.000-07:00

In May 2005, on the 60th anniversary of the fall of the Nazi regime and the end of World War II, the city of Berlin dedicated their Holocaust Memorial, designed to commemorate the murder of six million European Jews at the hands of Hitler and his forces.

The Design
The idea for a Holocaust Memorial was first proposed in 1988 but the design for the monument wasn’t approved until 1999. At that time, U.S. architect Peter Eisenman’s controversial design was chosen as a fitting tribute to the Jews that died before and during World War II as part of Hitler’s plan to exterminate the race.

Eisenman’s design is quite unique and has drawn both praise and criticism. Occupying about 205,000 square feet (19,000 square meters) of space near the Brandenburg Gate and just a short distance from where the ruins of Hitler’s bunker is buried, the Berlin Holocaust Memorial is made up of 2,711 gray stone slabs that bear no markings, such as names or dates.

The slabs undulate in a wave-like pattern. Each is a five-sided monolith, individually unique in shape and size. Some are only ankle high while others tower over visitors. Eisenman hoped to create a feeling of groundlessness and instability; a sense of disorientation. Most will agree that he succeeded.

Visitors may walk through the memorial in any direction as there is no set pattern to the stones. The architect has said that he hopes it will merely become a natural part of the city, blending in with its background; used for shortcuts on the way home from work or a place of peace and quiet on a chaotic day.

Visiting the Holocaust Memorial
The Holocaust Memorial, officially named the Monument to the Murdered Jews in Europe, can be visited at anytime – night or day. A subterranean Information Center, located at the base of the memorial, offers stories of families and individuals who faced the wrath of the Nazi party and provides further information about the design and construction of the memorial. The Information Center is open from 10 am until 8 pm.

Berlin Zoo (Zoologischer Garten)

2008-06-10T02:06:00.000-07:00

One of the largest zoological gardens in the world, Berlin’s Zoologischer Garten has been thrilling visitors since it opened more than 150 years ago.

Building the Zoo
First opened to the public in 1844, the Berlin Zoo was built upon a gift bestowed to the city by King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The king provided animals from his menagerie to fill the cages and open habitats at the zoo, which was designed by Peter Lenne.

The idea for the zoo was the brainchild of Alexander von Humboldt and German-born African explorer and zoologist Heinrich Lichtenstein. It occupies the southwest portion of the Tiergarten, a popular public park where Berliners gather when the sun is shining and the weather is warm.
The zoo stood steadfast for nearly 100 years until World War II. Literally thousands of animals had taken up residence there by the early to mid 1900s and the zoo was a popular attraction for those visiting the city, but after the destruction caused by the war, less than 100 animals remained.

The Zoo Today
These days, as you enter the Zoologischer Garten through its Elephant or Lion Gates, you’ll be treated to more than 15,000 animals representing about 1,400 species. Cages are rare. Most animals roam free in re-creations of their natural habitats.

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Pandas and more
The pandas are the most popular residents of the Berlin Zoo, attracting an amazing amount of attention from local media whenever they hit a landmark birthday or other occasion. The Birdhouse is one of the most modern in Europe, boasting more than 500 species of birds, many of them quite rare.

There’s also an excellent aquarium adjacent to the zoo (you can buy a combo ticket) where you’ll find not only fish but also insects, amphibians, and reptiles.

Kids love the Children’s Zoo, where they can pet the animals, as well as the onsite playground, providing lots of room to run around after a long day of sightseeing.

Gendarmenmarkt

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The harmonious Gendarmenmarkt is known as one of the most beautiful squares in Europe. It was created at the end of the 17th century as a market place, the Linden Markt.

The current name is derived from the Regiment Gens d'Armes who had their stables here from 1736 to 1773. From 1777, the square was redeveloped after plans by Georg Christian Unger.It is now a quiet place surrounded by three landmark buildings, the Französischer Dom, Deutscher Dom and the Konzerthaus. In the center of the square is a statue of Friedrich Schiller, a famous German poet.

Konzerthaus
The Konzerthaus or Concert Hall is the most recent building on the Gendarmenmarkt. It was built in 1821 as the Schauspielhaus by Berlin's famous architect Karl-Friedrich Schinkel, who around the same time also designed the reconstruction of the Berliner Dom. The Konzerthaus was built on the ruins of the National Theater, which was destroyed by fire in 1817. Schinkel reused the columns and some outside walls from this 1802 building.Like the other buildings on the Gendarmenmarkt, the Konzerthaus was badly damaged during the second World War. The reconstruction, which was finished in 1984, turned the theater into a concert hall. It is now home to the Berlin Symphony Orchestra.

The Französischer Dom (French Cathedral)
The Französischer Dom and Deutscher Dom are two seemingly identical churches opposite each other.The oldest of the two is the Französischer Dom (French Cathedral). It was built between 1701 and 1705 by the Huguenot community. Persecuted in France, they sought refuge in Protestant Berlin.The church was modeled after the Huguenot church in Charenton, destroyed in 1688. In 1785 the tower and porticos, designed by Carl von Gontard, were added to the building. It actually turned the church into a twin sister of the Deutscher Dom.The Französischer Dom contains a Huguenot museum, a restaurant on the top floor and a viewing platform.

Deutscher Dom (German Cathedral)
The Deutscher Dom or German Cathedral is the most southern building at the Gendarmenmarkt. The pentagonal structure was designed by Martin Grünberg and built in 1708 by Giovanni Simonetti and modified in 1785 after a design by Carl von Gontard, who added the domed tower. The Deutscher Dom was completely destroyed by fire in 1945. It wasn't rebuilt until 1993 and reopened in 1996 as a museum with exhibits on German history.

Berliner Dom

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The Berliner Dom is a baroque Cathedral built between 1894 and 1905. It is located on an island in the river Spree, also known as the Museum Island.

The first cathedral
The first church built on the site of the current Cathedral was a 1465 church. The building, which later served as the court church for the Hohenzollern family was replaced by a cathedral, built between 1745 and 1747 in a Baroque design from Johann Boumann. It was reconstructed into a classicist building from 1816 to 1822 following a design by the Berlin architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel.

Construction
On Emperor Willem II's order, this domed building was demolished in 1894 and replaced by the current Cathedral. Much larger than any of the previous buildings, it was a Protestant counterweight to the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The baroque building with Italian Renaissance influences was designed by Julius Raschdorff.Construction of the 114m long and 73m wide Cathedral took place between 1894 and 1905.

War damage
During the Second World War, the building was hit by a fire bomb which severely damaged much of the Cathedral. A temporary roof was installed to protect what remained of the interior and in 1975 reconstruction of the church started.The restoration of the interior begun in 1984 and in 1993 the church reopened. During reconstruction, the original design was modified into a more simplified form.

Interior
The Dom can be visited daily. Some interesting items in the richly decorated interior of the church are the magnificent Sauer's Organ, the 1530 Elector's tomb, the neo-baroque pulpit and the stained glasses designed by Anton von Werner. The main altar, which was saved from the previous cathedral dates from 1850.

Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche

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The Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche or Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church is one of Berlin's most famous landmarks. The damaged tower is a symbol of Berlin's resolve to rebuild the city after the war and a constant reminder of the destruction of war.

The church is located at the Breitscheidplatz, the center of former West-Berlin.It is still the commercial center of Berlin, with the Ku'damm shopping street and Europa Center near by.

Construction
Built between 1891 and 1895 by Kaiser Wilhelm II, the church was a symbol of Prussian unity and a mark of honor for his grandfather, Kaiser Wilhem I.The neo-romanesque building was designed by Franz Schwechten.

A new church
After allied bombing in November 1943, only the broken west tower of the church was still standing. Local opposition saved the structure from demolition in the 1950s and in 1961 a new, octagonal church designed by Egon Eiermann was built alongside the existing tower.A freestanding hexagonal bell tower was constructed on the site of the former main nave of the destroyed church. A third and small rectangular building is also part of the new complex.The church is a reinforced concrete structure with blue-colored glass bricks.

Memorial Hall
Below the west tower of the destroyed church is a Gedenkhalle or Memorial Hall. It documents the history of the church and contains several of the original objects in the church as well as photos from before and after the bombing. Some of the mosaic decoration and reliefs that survived the bombing can also be seen.

Nikolaiviertel

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The Nikolaiviertel or St. Nicholas Quarter is a small district in the historic center, part of Mitte and close to the Alexanderplatz.

The district's narrow and often pedestrianized streets are very popular with tourists. The area, which borders the Spree river contained some of the oldest buildings in Berlin before it was turned into wasteland at the end of the second world war.

Recreating a historic district
It wasn't until 1979, in the run-up to the 750th anniversary of the city, before reconstruction of the area started. During the 8-year project, replicas of historic buildings were constructed in an attempt to recreate a historic quarter. The result is a nice tourist-attracting area with many restaurants, cafés and shops.

Nikolaikirche
At the center of the Nikolaiviertel is the oldest church in Berlin: the 13th century Nikolaikirche. The building has undergone much reconstruction over the centuries. A presbytery was built in 1402 and the two towers were added in 1877.The Nikolaikirche was destroyed in 1945 by bombing and completely rebuilt in 1987. The church now houses a museum recounting the history of the city.

Rotes Rathaus
At the border of the Nikolaiviertel is the Rotes Rathaus or Red Town Hall, named so for the red brick walls.The High-Renaissance style building was designed by Hermann Friedrich Waesemann and constructed between 1861 and 1869. Severely damaged by the war, the Rathaus was reconstructed between 1951 and 1958. The Berlin Rathaus as it is officially named is the home of the Berlin Mayor.

Museum Island

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Granted UNESCO National Heritage Site status in the year 2000, Berlin’s Museum Island was designed to be “a sanctuary of art and science.”

History of Museum Island
The five museums that comprise Berlin’s famous Museum Island are located between the Spree River and the Kupfergraben. The idea for this ornate and enticing group of museums originated with King Friedrich Wilhelm III with the construction of the Old Museum in 1830, built to allow the general public to view the royal art treasures of Germany.

Technically, however, the idea for the island wasn’t devised until around 1841, when Friedrich August Stüler proposed the idea, which was lauded by all. In 1859, the New Museum was complete. The year 1876 saw the completion of the Old National Gallery. The Kaiser-Friedrich Museum (today the Bode Museum) was added in 1904 and the final museum, the Pergamon, was completed in 1930.

Sadly, nearly 70% of the buildings were destroyed during World War II and, after the war, the collections were split up between East and West Berlin.

A reconstruction and re-modernization program, designed to restore the five museums, is still underway with hopes that the magnificent collections of 19th century art and artifacts will once again be reunited on Museum Island for German citizens and visitors to admire and enjoy.

The Museums
The Old National Gallery (Alte Nationalgalerie) re-opened in 2001 with much fanfare. It owns one of the largest collections of 19th century sculpture and paintings in Germany. Visitors will find numerous works by well-known German artists of that century here as well as an excellent display of French Impressionist pieces.

Restored and reopened in 1966, the Old Museum (Altes Museum) now houses ancient Greek and Roman artifacts though it was originally built to display the treasures of the royal family. Built by the city’s greatest architect, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, the building resembles a Greek Corinthian Temple. Don’t miss the bust of Queen Nefertiti!

Both the Bode and New Museums remain closed for renovations, but guests may visit the Pergamon Museum, where you’ll a collection of Greek and Roman antiquities as well as the impressive Ishtar Gate of Babylon.

Brandenburger Gate

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Right on the border between East and West Berlin at the Pariser Platz, the Brandenburger Gate was the symbol of the city's divide.

Since the fall of the wall, the Brandenburger Gate has become the symbol of a reunified Berlin. The desolate area that Pariser Platz was during the cold war, is now completely redeveloped and has regained much of its 19th century grandeur.

Brandenburger Gate
The Brandenburger gate was designed by Carl Gotthard. It was constructed between 1778 and 1791. The decorations, including bas scenes depicting Greek mythology took another 4 years to complete. The quadriga of victory crowning the gate was built in 1793 by Johann Gottfried Schadow. Originally it was a symbol of peace. During Berlin's occupation by France, in 1806 Napoleon ordered the quadriga to be taken to Paris. After the Battle of Waterloo, the quadriga was triumphantly taken back to Berlin, and it was turned into a symbol of victory.
Situated at the end of Unter den Linden, the 60m tall gate was part of a wall surrounding the city and was the main entrance to the city. It is the only gate that remains of this former city wall.

Berlin Wall
After the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 which was built right next to the Brandenburger Tor, the Pariser Platz, on the East-Berlin side, became completely desolate. The gate symbolized Germany's division. With the fall of the wall in 1989, people flocked to the reopened Brandenburger Gate to celebrate.

Reichstag

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The Reichstag, the seat of the German Parliament, is one of Berlin's most historical landmarks. It is close to the Brandenburger Tor and before the unification, it was right next to the wall.

Construction
After the founding of the German Empire in 1872, there was a need for a large parliamentary building in Berlin. Paul Wallot designed an imposing neo-renaissance building, 137m long and 97m wide.It was constructed between 1884 and 1894, mainly funded with wartime reparation money from France. The famous inscription 'Dem Deutschen Volke' (To the German People) was only added in 1916.

Fire Damage
In 1933 fire broke out in the building, destroying much of the Reichstag. It is to date still unclear who started the fire, but the Communists were blamed. It gave a boost to Hitler's Party, the NSDAP, who would soon come to power. The building was even further damaged at the end of the war, when the Soviets entered Berlin. The picture of a Red Army Soldier raising the Soviet flag on the Reichstag is one of the most famous 20th century images and symbolized Germany's defeat.

Glass dome
The central dome and most of the ornamentation were removed during the reconstruction after the war. After the unification the decision was made to move the Bundestag from Bonn back to Berlin.This decision resulted in the latest reconstruction which started in 1995 and was completed in 1999. The design by Sir Norman Foster added a glass dome over the plenary hall. At first the subject of much controversy, the dome has become one of the city's most recognized landmarks. Since April 1999, the Reichstag is once again the seat of the Bundestag. You can visit the Reichstag and walk all the way to the top of the dome.

Arch of Septimius Severus

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The arch of Septimius Severus is one of the two remaining triumphal arches on the Forum Romanum, the other being the better known Arch of Titus.

The Arch
The triumphal arch was built in 203 A.D. to commemorate the victories of emperor Septimius Severus in Parthia (now partly Iran and Iraq).The arch is 23m high and 25m wide. It has three archways: the central one is 12m high and the others 7m 80cm. Originally a flight of stairs led to the central archway. It was only replaced by a road in the 4th century.

Relief Panels & Inscriptions
The relief panels at the top depict various stages of the war between the Romans and the Parthians. Other panels show Romans capturing barbarians.Originally the arch was topped by a bronze quadriga with the emperor Severus and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta. Bronze inscriptions in the attic dedicated the arch to Septimius Severus and both of this sons, but soon after Septimius's death, Caracalla killed his brother Geta and had his name removed from the arch.

Preservation
The arch of Septimius Severus is one of the best preserved monuments on the Forum Romanum thanks to its incorporation in an old church in the middle ages.The church later moved to another location but it was still owner of the arch, thus protecting it from destruction. While parts of other arches like the Arch of Titus were used for the construction of Renaissance palaces, the Arch of Septimius Severus was left untouched.During the middle ages and until the 18th century, when the excavation of the Forum Romanum started, a large part of the arch was covered in soil and debris.

Location
The arch of Septimius Severus is located at the western end of the Forum, near the capitoline hill.

Arch of Titus

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The Arch of Titus is one of two remaining arches on the Forum Romanum. It was built to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem over the Jewish Zealots.

Jewish Revolt
In AD 66 Jewish Zealots started a revolt against the Roman occupation of Judea. Vespasian was sent from Rome to crush the revolt. After Vespasian became emperor, his son Titus took over.Titus captured Jerusalem in AD 70 with four legions and the revolt was completely crushed after the fall of the Masada fortress in AD 72.

Emperor Titus
In AD 79 Titus became emperor of the Roman empire. He died just two years later, in September AD 81. The popular emperor was soon deified by the Roman Senate. His son, emperor Domitian built the Arch of Titus that same year both to honor his brother and to commemorate the victory in the Jewish War. The arch was dedicated in AD 85 with large festivities.

The Arch
The 15m high arch is located at the Forum Romanum, at the highest point of the Via Sacra. It is the oldest surviving example of a Roman arch.At the inside of the arch are two panels with reliefs. One depicts the triumphal procession with the spoils taken from the Second Temple in Jerusalem - the seven-branched candelabrum or Menorah, the silver trumpets and the Table of the Shewbread. The other one shows Titus in a chariot accompanied by the Goddess Victoria and the Goddess Roma.The inscriptions in the frieze (see right) which mean 'The Roman Senate and People to Deified Titus, Vespasian Augustus, son of Deified Vespasian' were originally in bronze. The reliefs were also colored and the arch was topped by a bronze quadriga.

Preservation
In the 11th century the arch was integrated into a fortress built by the Frangipani family. In 1821 the arch was restored by Giuseppe Valadier. The outer sides were rebuilt between 1822 and 1823 in travertine instead of marble, so they would be distinguishable from the original.

Baths of Caracalla

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The Baths of Caracalla were the largest thermae in the world when completed in 217AD. The were functional for over 300 years.

The Baths of Caracalla
The red-brick ruins of the Baths of Caracalla are siturated southeast of ancient Rome's center. This huge 27 acre complex (11 hectares) housed bathing facilities with seats for more than 1600 people. At a time when Rome's crowded tenements had few sanitary facilities, the more than 50 baths in Imperial Rome played an important part in the lives of the Roman citizens.The ritual of bathing was a long process, starting with a hot bath in the calidarium. Next up was the lukewarm tepidarium, followed by the cold frigidarium. Then followed a swim in the natatio, an open air swimming pool.

Leisure Center
The complex was actually a multifunctional leisure center and also housed gymnasiums, libraries, gardens, art galleries, restaurants and even brothels. The Baths of Caracalla were known for its rich interior which featured marble seats, mosaic covered walls and floors as well as fountains and statues.

Construction
Construction of the Baths of Caracalla started in 212AD and was completed in 217AD. The complex was built during the reign of emperor Caracalla whose official name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, hence the original name of the baths, Thermae Antoninianae. The emperor was nicknamed Caracalla after a Gallic tunic he used to wear, but this name was never officially used.

Caracalla
Caracalla is infamous for killing his more popular brother Geta. He is also known for his decision to offer citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire, mainly to increase the income from taxes.

Water Distribution
The baths were enormous buildings, with huge frescoed vaults covering the large rooms. A complex water distribution system ensured a constant flow of water from the Aqua Marcia aqueduct. Below the main buildings were two levels, the upper one was used for services and heating the water, the lower one was used for water drainage. The baths were fully functional until 537AD when Goths destroyed the aqueduct, cutting off the water supply.

Decay
Neglection, looting and an earthquake turned this great architectural complex into ruins. But even these ruins impress visitors by its magnificence.

Castel Sant'Angelo

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Castel Sant'Angelo, an imposing building on the right bank of the Tiber river has had a turbulent history, even by Rome's standards.

During its many years of existence, the building functioned first as a mausoleum, then became part of the city wall and later was turned into a fortress before it functioned as a papal residence and finally as a barracks and military prison. It is currently a national museum.

Hadrian's Mausoleum
The Castel Sant'Angelo was originally built by Emperor Hadrian as a mausoleum. Construction started in 123 A.D. and was finished in 139 A.D., during the reign of Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius.The building consisted of a square 89m (292ft) wide base on which a cylindrical colonnaded drum with a diameter of 64m was constructed. On the drum was an earthen tumulus topped by a quadriga with Hadrian's statue.

The mausoleum was connected to the city at the other side of the river by a newly constructed bridge, the Pons Aelius. The bridge is now known as the Pont Sant'Angelo. Its many statues were added later during the Renaissance.

The mausoleum housed the remains of Hadrian and his successors up to Caracalla.

Papal Refuge
Between 270 and 275 A.D., during the construction of the Aurelian walls, Hadrian's mausoleum was fortified and incorporated in the Aurelian Wall around Rome. From that point on the building was slowly turned into a fortress and in 1277 it was acquired by the papacy who used the building as a refuge in case of danger.A secret corridor, known as the Passetto di Borgo, connects the Castel Sant'Angelo with the Vatican. The corridor was used by Pope Clement VII and his Swiss Guards to take refuge from Charles de Bourbon's army during the sack of Rome in 1527.

Interior
But even in this fortress, the pontiffs made sure they were well housed. The papal apartments in the Castel Sant'Angelo feature beautiful rooms decorated with many frescoes. Below the apartments are several floors which include prisons and even a torture chamber. A spiraling corridor, part of the original mausoleum, leads to the bottom of the building.

Angel Statue
At the top of the fortress, looking over the panoramic terrace, is a statue of an angel, built by the 18th century Flemish sculptor Pieter Verschaffelt. The bronze statue replaced an earlier, marble version.The statue depicts the angel who, according to legend, appeared on top of the fortress in the year 590 and miraculously ended the severe plague that had infested the city of Rome. After the event, the building was renamed Castel Sant'Angelo.

San Giovanni in Laterano

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The cathedral where the Pope officiates as Bishop of Rome, the basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano is the oldest of the four major basilicas in the city.

History
The land where the cathedral church of Rome sits was once occupied by the Laterani Palace. Constantine I took the palace when he wed a member of this wealthy patrician family named Laterani.In the 4th century, Constantine donated the land for the building of a church. Early structures on the site were damaged by earthquakes, fire, and war, and it wasn’t until 1646 that Pope Innocent X commissioned the architect Francesco Borromini to rebuild the church that we now view. (However, the remaining northern façade dates back to the late 16th century and was designed by Domenico Fontana.)The adjacent Lateran Palace was the official residence of the Pope until it moved to Avignon in 1309. When the popedom moved back to Rome, it settled in the Vatican instead of the Lateran Palace.The church however remained Rome's principal cathedral.

Architecture and Design
When Borromini was commissioned to rebuild the church, his designs gave the basilica more of a Baroque look than the look of an ancient basilica. Some critics believe San Giovanni in Laterano appears more like a palace than a church, but it’s nevertheless a wonderful place to visit and a must-see for fans of ecclesiastical architecture.

The eastern, front façade of San Giovanni in Laterano is probably the most recognizable part of this important basilica. Used in several movies, including Roman Holiday, this façade features gigantic white stone statues of the twelve apostles of Jesus. The statues were designed by a variety of prominent Rococo sculptors of that time period, including Francesco Moratti, Angelo de’ Rossi, and Pierre Le Gros the Younger.

Interior
You will, however, find a few older pieces remaining, like the ancient statue of Constantine and the giant bronze doors from the Curia building in the Forum Romanum . A fragment of a 14th century fresco of Pope Boniface VIII is also visible. There’s also a wooden table at the papal altar which is said to have been used by St. Peter to celebrate the Eucharist. The Gothic tabernacle, dating from 1367, has a macabre use. It supposedly contains the heads of Sts. Peter and Paul.

More conspicuous than these relics are the enormous statues that are placed in the twelve niches Borromiri created in the nave. The baroque statues, which were added later, represent the twelve apostles.There are also six papal tombs inside San Giovanni in Laterano. They contain the remains of Alexander III, Sergius IV, Clement XIII, Martin V, Innocent III, and Leo XIII. After Leo XIII, popes were buried in St. Peter’s.

The Cloister
A visit to the separate Cloister is also a must in order to admire the unique spiral columns and the Cosmatesque mosaics found there. (Cosmatesque was a floor-making style in medieval Italy.) There is a small admission charge to enter the Cloister.

Baptisery
Also separate is the basilica’s baptistery, octagonal in shape and founded by Pope Sixtus III. Constantine I contributed greatly to the enrichment of the baptistery, and for many decades, it was the only one in Rome.

Palatine Hill

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With a past that pre-dates the city itself, Rome’s Palatine Hill holds an important place in the history of the Eternal City.

Rome's Origins
Palatine Hill is the centermost of the famous seven hills of Rome. Located in between such attractions as the Circus Maximus, the Colosseum, and the Roman Forum, evidence from archaeological digs demonstrates that the hill was inhabited as long ago as the 10th century BC.
The hill has a strong link to Roman mythology. It is believed that on Palatine Hill, the twins Romulus and Remus were found in the Lupercal Cave by their four-legged shepherd mother, who raised them. Ultimately, this is where Romulus decided to build the city. Therefore, it was on this hill that the Roman Empire began.

History
By the time of Rome’s Republican Era, Palatine Hill became the fashionable place to live, due mostly to the amazing views provided from the top of the hill, which stretches to a height of about 70 meters (230 feet) above the city. Augustus, Cicero, and Marc Antony (Marcus Antonius) all had homes on the hill. Later, emperors built their domains here and, at one point, the entire hill was covered with imperial palaces.

During the Middle Ages, churches and convents were built on Palatine Hill. Later, almost the entire hill was owned by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, who created an ornate botanical garden on top of the ruins.

It was also believed – and accurately so, according to historians – that the air was cleaner atop the hill and that those who lived on it were less likely to catch the diseases of the working class that festered in the bad air below.

Excavation site
Archaeological excavation has been taking place on Palatine Hill since the mid to late 18th century. Evidence of a Bronze Age settlement has become apparent and, most recently, archaeologists have discovered what they have dubbed the Palatine House, where they believe Rome’s first emperor, Augustus, was born. It remains just one of a few early Republican houses that weren’t overbuilt by imperial palaces.

Early in 2007, an Italian archaeologist reported that she had found the Lupercal Cave, which early Romans had probably converted into an altar, as is evident by its richly decorated walls.
Because so much of the hill is an excavation site, the best look at what the hill may have been like comes via the Palatine Antiquarium Museum, located on top of Domitian’s Palace. In the museum’s nine rooms, you’ll find ceramics, frescoes, mosaics, inscriptions, sculptures and portrait heads actually found on the hill.

The Ruins
The Palatine Hill is littered with ruins from ancient palaces and other buildings.At the Southern end, bordering the Circus Maximus, are the remains of the palace of Septimius Severus, Roman emperor between 193 and 211AD. Adjacent to the palace are the ruins of the Baths of Septimius Severus.Just north of the palace of Septimius Severus is the so-called Stadium, built together with the adjacent palace of Domitian. It is not clear if this area was actually a public or private stadium, or that it was used as a private imperial garden.The heart of the Palatine Hill was formed by Domitian's palace, the largest of Rome's palaces for three centuries. The palace, built in 81AD, was constructed between two crests after the tallest one - the Palatium - was topped off and the ground used to level the hilltop. The palace consisted of two wings, a private one (the Domus Augustana) and a public one (the Domus Flavia). Remains of both wings can still be found.Just north-west of the Domus Flavia is the house of Livia, one of the best preserved houses on the Palatine Hill. The house dates back to the 1st century BC and was the home of emperor Augustus and his wife Livia.Archaeologist discovered remains of an early settlement on the Palatine Hill, probably dating back to the times of the first king of Rome, Romulus. Hence this site is known as the hut of Romulus.Other ruins found on the Palatine Hill include the house of Augustus, the Temple of Apollo and the temple of Cybele.

Farnese Garden
At the north-west end of the Palatine Hill are the ruins of the palace of Tiberius (aka palace of Caligula), built in the 1st century AD.Not much is left of it however, since cardinal Allessandro Farnese acquired the area in 1550 and decided to fill in the ruins and build a garden on top of it. It was the first botanical garden in Europe, featuring many rare plants. The garden was connected to the Roman Forum via several flights of stairs.

Vatican Museums

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What started as just a small collection of sculptures has, over the centuries, turned into a complex of the world’s most magnificent museums featuring one of the finest collections of art on the planet.

History of the Museums
The Vatican Museums were founded under the patronage of two 18th century popes - Clement XIV (1769-1774) and Pius VI (1775-1799) – who were among the first to open collections of art to the general public for viewing, therefore promoting culture among the masses. Appropriately, the first building in the museum complex, the Pio-Clementine Museum, was named after these two pontiffs.

As the decades passed, more popes added to the already impressive collection of diverse artworks owned and displayed by the Vatican. Today, there are 13 museums and collections and an additional 14 Vatican palaces that are included on tours of the Vatican Museum complex. The building complex is worth a visit in itself as all rooms and hallways are lavishly decorated with marble and frescoes.

The Museums
The many museums that make up the Vatican complex are quite diverse. Nonetheless, each is interesting to explore and which you enjoy most will largely depend on your artistic preferences.
The Gregorian Egyptian Museum was founded in 1839 by Pope Gregory XVI, who had a keen interest in Egypt. Featuring nine rooms, objects d’art in this museum range from third century BC hieroglyphics to third century AD pieces from Mesopotamia and Syria-Palestine.

The Gregorian Etruscan Museum, founded by the same Pope, is large and fun to explore. With 23 rooms, this diverse museum includes everything from Tuscan sarcophaguses to Roman jewelry, terra cotta, glass and ivory to wonderful 16th century frescoes by some of Italy’s best.
The Vatican Pinacoteca, one of the newer museums – opened in 1932 – is, technically, a picture gallery. Paintings range in age from the 12th to 19th centuries and include entire rooms devoted to the works of such greats as DaVinci, Bernini, and Raphael. There’s also a unique display of icons from the 15th through 19th centuries.

Founded by Pius XI in 1926, the Ethnological Missionary Museum features objects of a religious nature from four geographical areas – Asia, Oceania, Africa, and America. About 80,000 pieces make up the total collection for this particular museum.

Other museums include the Collection of Modern Religious Art, founded by Pope Paul VI in 1973 and featuring 55 rooms; Classical Antiquities Museum (Greek and Roman);the Pio Clementine Museum with the famous Laocoön statue; the Pio Christian Museum (with the Christian and Hebrew Lapidary); Tapestries; Ceramics; Miniature Mosaics; Museo Sacro; Gregorian Profane Museum; and the Vatican Historical Museum, which provides a fascinating look at the long and sometimes turbulent history of the Vatican.

Sistine Chapel and Stanze of Raphael
The Vatican Palaces on the tour include the famous Sistine Chapel, where visitors can enjoy not only Michelangelo’s famous ceiling but also a host of other wonderful works of art, including the artist’s The Last Judgment on the altar wall. (Bring binoculars for a better view.) In addition, the four rooms known as the Stanze of Raphael, once the residence of Pope Julius II, feature the works of Raphael and others from his school.

Other ornate Vatican Palaces are also featured on the tour, including the Upper Galleries of Tapestries and Maps and residences of several former pontiffs.

Visiting the Vatican Museums
Once you’ve purchased your tickets for admission to the Vatican Museums, you can choose to follow one of four color-coded itineraries that range from 1 ½ hours to more than 5 hours. All itineraries end in the Sistine Chapel. Even with a five-hour tour, it’s impossible to see everything there is to admire, but you’ll get a good overview and hit the most well-known highlights of these magnificent museums.

Forum Romanum

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The Forum Romanum was the center of life in imperial Rome, evidenced by the many remains of triumphal arches, temples and basilicas.

History
Until 509 BC, when Rome became a republic, the city was reigned by an Etruscan dynasty of Tarquin Kings. They built a sewer, the 'Cloaca Maxima', to drain water from the marshlands of the valley between the Palatine, Capitol and Esquiline hills to the Tiber river. Ever since, the area was the center of activity in Rome. It was the site of the first forum. Here, triumphal processions took place, elections were held and the Senate assembled.

The Forum Romanum Today
Today, the forum known as the Forum Romanum can look like a disorderly collection of ruins to the uninitiated, but with some imagination you can see the Roman empire come back to life at this site. Remains of many buildings from different periods are visible; the forum was littered with temples, basilicas and triumphal arches.

Triumphal Arches
Three triumphal arches were built on the forum. They were used by emperors to commemorate their victories. The first one, constructed by Augustus, does not exist anymore. The Arch of Titus, built in AD 81 AD commemorates the victory in the Jewish War. It is located at the Via Sacra on the eastern side of the forum. At the other end of the forum, near the capitoline hill is the Arch of Septimius Severus. It was built in AD 203 to commemorate the victory over the Parthians.

Curia Julia
The Curia was the location where the senate assembled. The rectangular brick building could seat up to 200 senators.The original Curia was built by the third king of Rome (although at another location). It burnt down four times, first in 80 BC but it was rebuilt each time. After a fire in 53 BC Caesar moved the Curia to the Forum Romanum. The current building was constructed in AD 283 by Diocletius. In the 7th century the Curia was turned into a church, but fortunately the building was mostly kept intact.

Rostra
The Rostra was a speaker's platform, originally built in the 4th century BC at a nearby location. The name Rostra, which means 'battering rams', was derived from the iron-clad battering rams of Volscian war vessels captured at the battle of Actium in 338 BC. The platform was decorated with many of those battering rams.As part of his modifications of the Forum, Caesar built the Rostra at its present location, this time in marble.Thanks to Spakespeare's version, the most famous speech at the Rostra was given in 44 BC by Marcus Antonius when he addressed the crowd during Julius Caesar's funeral "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears...".

Temple of Saturn
The first Temple of Saturn was built during the last years of the kings. It was inaugurated at the beginning of the republic in 497 BC. The current ruins date from 42 BC. The temple was used as the state treasury (Aerarium). It also housed the banners of the legions and the senatorial decrees. In 20 BC a tall column, the Miliarum Aureum, was placed in front of the temple by emperor Augustus.

Temple of Vespasian and Titus
Construction of this temple was started in the 1st century AD by Titus in honor of his deified father Vespasian.Emperor Domitian, Titus's brother and successor, completed the structure,
now dedicated to both Titus and Vespasian. The temple had a hexagonal plan with a large cella (sanctuary) with statues of the two emperors.
Temple of Castor and Pollux
Only three pillars remain of the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The original temple was built in 484 BC, the current ruins date from its last reconstruction in 6 A.D. The temple was built by the roman dictator Postumius who vowed to build the temple if his army would beat the Tarquin Kings who previously ruled Rome. According to the legend, Castor and Pollux, mythological twin brothers, helped the Roman army to victory and announced the victory at the forum.

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina was built in 141 AD by emperor Antoninus Pius to honor his deceased wife Faustina. After his death in 161 AD the temple was rededicated to both Antoninus and Faustina. In the 7th century the temple was converted into the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. The church was rebuilt in 1601.The deep grooves in the marble columns are attributed to attempts to tear down the columns. The cords burnt into the columns, but fortunately they did not budge.

Basilica Julia
In 54 BC Julius Caesar started construction of the Basilica Julia, a building used as the seat of the centumviri, a court of civil jurisdiction where magistrates held tribunals. The large building, 101m long and 49m wide, was destroyed by fire in 9 BC but rebuilt again seven years later. After the fall of Rome the basilica was sacked. Not much remains of it today but you can still clearly see the floor plan.

Basilica Aemilia
The Basilica Aemilia is the oldest basilica at the forum, originally built in 179 BC by consuls Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Marcus Fulvius Nobilor. The purpose of the basilica was to provide a sheltering place so that many of the businesses and administration that normally took place outside could be carried out in case of bad weather. It was last modified in 22 AD; at that time the great marble hall with four aisles incorporated a number of public shops (tabernae).The Basilica was destroyed by a fire during the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 AD.

Temple of Vesta
The circular temple of Vesta dates back to the 4th century BC. The small temple was one of Rome's most important as it was dedicated to the protectress of both the family and State. Here the Vestal Virgins guarded the sacred eternal flame, symbol of the eternal life of Rome. The Virgins guarding the flame were chosen by the Pontifex Maximus, the supreme religious authority of the State. The girls, who had to be aristocrates, had to serve for 30 years. During that time they had to stay virgins, otherwise they would be buried alive (this happened to 10 of them). The Vestal Virgins were highly regarded and enjoyed many perks.

House of the Vestal Virgins
Right near the Temple of Vesta stood the House of the Vestal Virgins. As soon as a girl was chosen as a Vestal Virgin (at the age of 6), she would move here. The large house featured 50 rooms for the six girls and their servants, spread over three floors. The rooms opened onto galleries surrounding a courtyard.

Temple of Divus Romulus
Opposite the House of the Vestal Virgins is the circular Temple of Romulus, built in the 4th century AD. The building mostly survived due to its incorporation into the church Santi Cosma e Damiano. The large well-preserved bronze door is original. There is still a debate going on as to who this temple was dedicated to. For now it is assumed that this temple was dedicated to the son of Maxentius, who died young in 307 BC.

Basilica of Maxentius
Construction on the last of the large basilicas was started by emperor Maxentius in 308 AD. After his defeat by Constantine during the famous battle at the Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, the basilica was completed by Constantine.The basilica measured 100m by 65m and was an impressive 35m high. It consisted of a large central nave with enormous corinthean columns and two smaller aisles. One column was moved in 1614 to the square of Santa Maria Maggiore. A 12m high statue of Constantine, partly in marble and partly in wood, occupied the western end of the Basilica. Parts of the statue can now be found at the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori, part of the Capitoline Museums.

Temple of Venus and Rome
Ancient Rome's largest religious structure was built at the end of the Forum Romanum, near the Colosseum. Designed by emperor Hadrianus in 135 AD, this temple measured an impressive 100m by 145m. The temple was dedicated to Roma, the personification of the city and Venus, mother of Aeneas (assumed father of Remus and Romulus). The building contained two cella's (sanctuary) with statues of the goddesses, each located at one side of the temple. Part of the cella dedicated to Roma is still standing today.

Column of Phocas
This 13.5m high column is the youngest of the forum. It wasn't part of any temple, but a monument built in 608 AD in honor of the Byzantine emperor Phocas, who had just visited Rome.

More remains
Remains of several more structures can be found at the Forum Romanum, among them the Sacellum of Venus Cloacina, the Porticus Deorum Consentium, the arch of Actium, the Regia, the Temple of Divus Julius - built by Augustus in honor of Julius Caesar - and the Temple of Concord.

Campidoglio

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The Capitoline Hill or Campidoglio is the smallest of Rome's seven hills, but it was the religious and political center of the city since its foundation more than 2500 years ago.

Capitoline Hill
Several important temples were built at the Capitoline Hill by the Romans: the Temple of Juno Moneta, the Temple of Virtus and the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus, the most important temple in ancient Rome.

The latter was built in 509 BC and was almost as large as the Parthenon in Athens.Also on the hill was the Tabularium, built in 79 BC and used as the empire's main archive.

The hill, and the temple of Jupiter in particular were the symbols of Rome as Caput Mundi, capital of the world.

Middle Ages
During the middle ages, the site became the center of civic government and several palaces were built on the hill. But when Charles V planned a visit to Rome in 1536, the muddy Capitoline Hill was in such a bad shape that Pope Paul III Farnese asked Michelangelo to design a new square, the Piazza del Campidoglio, including a redesign of the existing buildings surrounding the square.

Michelangelo's Design
Michelangelo came up with an original design for the square, including an intriguing ground pattern. He redesigned the Palazzo Senatorio, seat of the Roman senate. Michelangelo also made designs of a new façade for the Palazzo dei Conservatori and designed a new building, the Palazzo Nuovo, to be built just opposite the Palazzo dei Conservatori. Also in the plans were a monumental staircase, the Cordonata, leading from the bottom of the hill to the new square. Construction of the Piazza di Campidoglio started in 1546 but only the staircase at the entrance of the Palazzo Senatorio was completed when Michelangelo died in 1564. The project was only finished in the 17th century, but most of Michelangelo's designs were implemented.

Cordonata
The long, beautiful staircase to the Piazza del Campidoglio is known as the Cordonata. It is adorned with granite statues of Egyptian lions at the foot and two large classical statues of Castor and Pollux at the top.At the center of the square is a replica of a statue of Marcus Aurelius. The original statue can be found in the Palazzo Nuovo.

Palazzo Nuovo
Only three buildings border the square. The one on the left coming from the Cordonata is the Palazzo Nuovo. The building was designed by Michelangelo, but finished by the brothers Carlo and Girolamo Rainaldi in 1654. In 1734, pope Clemens XII made the collection open to the public, creating the world's first public museum. Now one of the Capitoline Museums, it contains mostly classical sculpture including the 'Dying Gaul' and large statues of Minerva and Mars.

Palazzo Senatorio
The central building on the Piazza del Campidoglio is the Palazzo Senatorio. The name is derived from its function as seat of the Senate until 1870 when it became the seat of the City of Rome. It was originally built as a fortress in the 11th century on top of the ancient Tabularium and rebuilt again in the 13th and 14th century. The current design is a slightly adapted version of the 16th century design by Michelangelo.

Palazzo dei Conservatori
The building opposite the Palazzo Nuovo is the Palazzo dei Conservatori. It was the seat of the city government during the Middle Ages. The palazzo is now part of the Capitoline Museums, with a collection mainly consisting of sculpture and paintings. Some notable works are the she-wolf suckling the twins Remus and Romulus and the pieces of a giant statue of emperor Constantine II.

Santa Maria in Aracoeli
Near the Piazza del Campidoglio, at the site of the ancient temple of Juno is the Santa Maria in Aracoeli, a church which origins go back to the 6th century. A large staircase, 122 (when starting on the right) to 124 (starting on the left) steps lead to the church on top of the Capitoline Hill.
Victor Emmanuel Monument

There is also a connection from the Piazza del Campidoglio to the monument Victor Emmanuel II. That will save you a climb on yet another large staircase.

St. Peter's Basilica

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This great building is the center of christianity. The opulence of the building's interior bears testimony to the wealth of the catholic church in the 16th century.

Emperor Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome, ordered to build a basilica on Vatican Hill. The location was symbolic: this was the place where Saint Peter, the chief apostle, was buried in 64 A.D. A small shrine already existed on the site but it was now replaced by a new building church was completed around 349 A.D.

A New Basilica
In the middle of the 15th century, the basilica was falling into ruin and pope Nicolas V ordered the restoration and enlargement of the church after plans by Bernardo Rossellino. After Nicolas V died, works were halted. In 1506 pope Julius II laid the first stone of a new basilica which was to become the largest in the world.

Julius II appointed Donato Bramante as the chief architect of the new Basilica. In 1547 Michelangelo succeeded Bramante. He designed the imposing dome and altered some of the original plans. Michelangelo died in 1624, two years before the completion of the dome. The St. Peter's basilica was dedicated by pope Urban VIII in 1626. Ever since, this church has been the center of Christianity, drawing pilgrims from all over the world.

The Building
The building itself is truly impressive. The largest church in the world, it has a 218 meter long nave. The basilica's dome, designed by Michelangelo is the largest dome in the world measuring 42m in diameter and reaching 138 meter high (more than 450ft). The interior, which includes 45 altars, is decorated by many famous artists. Some of the most important works in the church are the Pietà by Michelangelo, the papal altar by Bernini, the Throne of St. Peter - also by Bernini - and the Monument to the Stuarts by Canova.The opulent interior can be visited daily for free although a strict dress code is enforced.

Dome observatory
You can also visit the dome itself (entrance is not free, but it's worth it). You have the option of taking the elevator or the stairs, the latter being a bit cheaper. The elevator brings you to the bottom of the dome from where a small, long and mostly spiral staircase brings you to the top of the dome. From there you have a magnificent view of Rome and of the Saint Peter's square in particular. The famous square with long symmetrical colonnades was designed by Bernini. It features a central obelisk and two identical fountains.

The Swiss Guards
Near the entrance of the Basilica you will probably encounter some of the famous Swiss guards. Since 1506 when pope Julius II invited Helvetian soldiers to join the small Vatican army, they have been the guards of the Vatican and the pope in particular. All entrants to the army must be Swiss, catholic and they must take the oath of loyalty to the pope. This oath is taken May 26th, to commemorate the sacking of Rome on the same day in 1527 when Swiss guards protected pope Clement VII during his escape to the Castel Sant'Angelo. Of the 189 guards, only 42 survived.

Location
St. Peter's is located in Vatican City, across the river Tiber, west of Rome's center. Vatican City is completely surrounded by the city of Rome.

Colosseum

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The Colosseum is probably the most impressive building of the Roman empire. Originally known as the Flavian Amphitheater, it was the largest building of the era.

The monumental structure has fallen into ruins, but even today it is an imposing and beautiful sight.

The Flavian Amphitheater
Emperor Vespasian, founder of the Flavian Dynasty, started construction of the Colosseum in AD 72. It was completed in AD 80, the year after Vespasian's death.The huge amphitheater was built on the site of an artificial lake, part of Nero's huge park in the center of Rome which also included the Golden House (Domus Aurea) and the nearby Colossus statue. This giant statue of Nero also gave the building its current name.

The Building
The elliptical building is immense, measuring 188m by 156m and reaching a height of more than 48 meter (159 ft). The Colosseum could accommodate some 55,000 spectators who could enter the building through no less than 80 entrances.Above the ground are four storeys, the upper storey contained seating for lower classes and women. The lowest storey was preserved for prominent citizens. Below the ground were rooms and cages containing wild animals and mechanical devices. The cages could be hoisted, enabling the animals to appear in the middle of the arena.

Velarium
The Colosseum was covered with an ernormous awning known as the velarium. This protected the spectators from the sun. It was attached to large poles on top of the Colosseum and anchored to the ground by large ropes. A team of some 1,000 men was used to install the awning.

Food and Games
Emperors used the Colosseum to entertain the public with free games. Those games were a symbol of prestige and power and they were a way for an emperor to increase his popularity.Games were held for a whole day or even several days in a row. They usually started with comical acts and displays of exotic animals and ended with fights to the death between animals and gladiators or between gladiators. These fighters were usually slaves, prisoners of war or condemned criminals. Sometimes free Romans and even Emperors took part in the action.

Inauguration
Hundred-day games were held by Titus, Vespasian's successor, to mark the inauguration of the building in AD 80. In the process, some 9,000 wild animals were slaughtered.

The Ruins
The southern side of the Colosseum was felled by an earthquake in 847. Parts of the building - including the marble facade - were used for the construction of later monuments, including the St. Peter's Basilica.

Notre Dame

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Not the largest cathedral in the world, the Notre-Dame might be the most famous of all cathedrals. The gothic masterpiece is located on the Île de la Cité, a small island in the heart of the city.

A Religious site
The site of the Notre dame is the cradle of Paris and has always been the religious center of the city. The Celts had their sacred ground here, the Romans built a temple to worship Jupiter. A Christian basilica was built in the 6th century and the last religious structure before the Notre-Dame construction started was a Romanesque church.

Construction
Bishop Maurice de Sully started the construction in 1163. The Cathedral was to be built in the new gothic style and had to reflect Paris's status as the capital of the Kingdom France. It was the first cathedral built on a monumental scale and became the prototype for future cathedrals in France, like the cathedrals of Amiens, Chartres or Rheims, just to name the most famous.

The Building
It took until 1345 before the cathedral was completed, partly because the design was enlarged during construction. The result is an overwhelming building, 128m long with two 69 meter tall towers (420 x 226 ft). The spire, which reaches 90m, was added in the 19th century by Viollet-le-Duc. The Notre-Dame Cathedral has several large rose windows, the northern 13th century window is the most impressive. The massive window has a diameter of 13.1 meter.The spectacular eastern buttresses are 15m wide. The west side features 3 wide portals, the gallery of Kings and the famous gargoyles.

Restoration
During the Revolution, many of the cathedral's sculptures, gargoyles and interior was removed or demolished. Even the gallery of Kings was severely damaged. It wasn't until the 19th century before the Cathedral was fully restored by a Parisian architect, Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc. It was restored again between 1991 and 2001.

Eiffel Tower

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Once the tallest structure in the world, the Eiffel Tower is probably Europe's best known landmark and Paris's most famous symbol.

You couldn't possibly visit Paris without seeing the Eiffel Tower.Even if you do not want to visit it, you will see its top from all over Paris. It rises 300 meters tall (984 ft) and was twice as high as the Washington Monument, at the time the tallest structure in the world.

1889 World Exhibition
The Eiffel Tower was built for the World Exhibition in 1889, held in celebration of the French Revolution in 1789.The construction was only meant to last for the duration of the Exposition, but it still stands today, despite all protests from contemporary artists who feared the construction would be the advent of structures without 'individuality' and despite the many people who feared that this huge 'object' would not fit into the architecture of Paris.

Today, there is no such aversion anymore among the Parisians, and one could not imagine Paris without the Eiffel Tower, in fact it has become the symbol of the City of Light.

Gustave Eiffel
The man behind the Eiffel Tower was Gustave Eiffel, known from his revolutionary bridge building techniques, as employed in the great viaduct at Garabit in 1884. These techniques would form the basis for the construction of the Eiffel Tower. He was also known for the construction of the Statue of Liberty's iron framework.

The structure took more than two years to complete. Each one of the about 12,000 iron pieces were designed separately to give them exactly the shape needed. All pieces were prefabricated and fit together using approx. 7 million nails.

The Tallest
Inaugurated March 31, 1889, the Eiffel Tower would be the tallest structure in the world until the completion of the Chrysler Building in 1930.

Money of Switzerland

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Currency
Swiss Franc (CHF; symbol SFr) = 100 cents (called centimes in French, rappen in German and centesimi in Italian). Notes are in denominations of SFr1,000, 200, 100, 50, 20 and 10. Coins are in denominations of SFr5, 2 and 1, and 50, 20, 10 and 5 centimes.

Currency Exchange
There are bureaux de change at train stations and banks.

Credit/Debit Cards and ATMs
American Express, Diners Club, MasterCard and Visa are widely accepted. ATMs are widely available.

Traveller's Cheques
Pound Sterling, US Dollar, Euro or Swiss Franc cheques are accepted at airports, railway stations and banks. To avoid additional exchange rate charges, visitors are advised to take traveller's cheques in Pounds Sterling, Euros or US Dollars.

Switzerland travel guide

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Small, mountainous and wealthy, with a population of just 7.5 million, Switzerland is renowned for its enviable quality of life in a country that ticks along like clockwork. Its products are sought after the world over, from its delicious cheese and chocolate to luxurious watches whose timekeeping is as sharp as a Swiss Army Knife, another popular export from this sophisticated Alpine nation.

Switzerland's famed political neutrality, financial power and isolated location, ring-fenced by breathtaking mountains, have enabled it to play a safe but central role in European affairs. The conveniently central location in the middle of Europe has also made Switzerland a favourite meeting place for conventions and international conferences - Geneva, for instance, is home to the United Nations.

Switzerland is not only a place for professionals, though. As a stylish tourist destination it offers such top ski resorts as Zermatt, Verbier and celebrity-studded St Moritz, while the white peaks of mountains set against blue skies make a wonderful backdrop for summertime hiking. The ancient capital of Berne provides superb opportunities for sightseeing, shopping and traditional folk entertainment while the largest city, Zürich leads the way in arts, design and nightlife, from opera and world-class theatre to stylish bars and nightclubs.

Switzerland's unique political model is based on consensus-building, and, considering that the country consists of several culturally different groups speaking different languages (Swiss German, French, Italian and Romansch), its peaceful domestic situation is admirable. And while the Swiss in practice have been neutral in foreign affairs for several centuries, they are increasingly willing to get more involved in world affairs and deploy the skills in democracy and diplomacy they have developed domestically on the international stage. Switzerland finally joined the United Nations in 2002, and signed the Schengen treaty in 2005, showing their support for the European Union.

Getting there & around Switzerland

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Getting There
The main entry points for international flights are Zürich and Geneva. Basel, Bern and Lugarno airports also receive international flights. There is no departure tax when flying out of Switzerland. Trains are a popular and convenient way to travel to Switzerland, and European rail passes make train travel affordable. Buses tend to be slower and less comfortable, though sometimes cheaper. Getting to Switzerland by road is simple, since there are fast, well-maintained motorways through all surrounding countries. If you have time and money, it's possible to get to Switzerland by boat along the Rhine all the way from Amsterdam. Switzerland can also be reached by lake steamer ferries from Germany via Lake Constance, from Italy via Lake Maggiore and from France via Lake Geneva.

Getting Around
Switzerland has a fully integrated and comprehensive public transport system incorporating trains, buses, boats, funiculars and cable cars. Internal flights are not of great interest to the visitor, owing to the excellent ground transportation. The Swiss rail network covers 5000km (3106mi). Trains are clean, reliable and frequent. Yellow postbuses supplement the rail network and their stations are next to railway stations. There are car-rental agencies in most sizeable towns. Roads are well maintained, well signposted and generally not too congested, though you may find it hard to concentrate with such wonderful scenery unfolding around you. Bicycles can be hired from most railway stations and returned to any station with a rental office. You'll need calf muscles the size of an ox to get very far though. All the larger lakes are serviced by steamers, and rail passes are valid on most steamer routes.

Map of Switzerland

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Costs, money and banks Austria

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Although Austria is by no means a budget destination, it is not quite as expensive as people imagine. It's true to say that there are few bargain deals around, and even though the cheapest coffee and cake at a traditional café will cost you dearly, restaurants on the whole are moderately priced, as are rooms in most pensions and hotels. That said, Austria is one of the wealthiest countries in the world, and if you have the money, it has plenty of luxury shops, hotels and restaurants ready to relieve you of it

Money
Up until the end of February 2002, the currency in Austria was the Austrian Schilling ( österreichische Schilling ). It is abbreviated to öS within Austria (and within this guide), but is also often written as ATS or AS. Each Schilling is divided into one hundred Groschen . Coins come in the denominations öS20, öS10, öS5 and öS1, plus 50 and 10 Groschen; notes are öS5000, öS1000, öS500, öS100, öS50 and öS20.

Currency
Name .........................Euro
Symbol ......................€

The euro
Austria is one of twelve European Union countries who have changed over to a single currency, the euro (€). The transition period began on January 1, 1999 and lasted until the end of February, 2002, when the Schilling was scrapped entirely: up until then, Schillings remained in place for cash transactions, at a fixed rate of öS13.7603 to 1 euro.

You can opt to pay in euros by credit card and you can get travellers' cheques in euros - you should not be charged commission for changing them in any of the twelve countries in the euro zone (also known as "Euroland").

Euro notes are issued in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 euros, and coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 cents and 1 and 2 euros.
All prices in this guide are given in Schillings and the exact equivalent in euros. Now that the new currency has taken over, prices have been rounded off.

For information on the British government's current line on the euro visit www.euro.gov.uk ; for the Irish view see www.emuaware.forfas.ie ; and for the Austrian position go to www.oenb.at .

Average costs
Accommodation will be your biggest single expense, with hostel beds going for around öS200/€14.54 (£10/US$15) the cheapest reasonable double rooms in a pension going for about öS500-750/€36.34-54.50 (£25-38/US$38-57). A double in a more comfortable pension or hotel is more likely to be between öS750-1000/€54.50-72.67 (£38-50/US$57-75).

After you've paid for your room, count on a minimum of £20/US$30 a day, to buy your breakfast, a takeaway lunch, a budget dinner and a beer or coffee, but not much else. Eating sit-down meals twice a day, visiting museums and drinking more beer and coffee (especially coffee) will mean allowing something in the range of £40/$60 a day; if you want to go to the opera or a nightclub, then you could easily double that figure.

Tipping is expected in the more upmarket hotels, taxis and in most cafés, bars and restaurants, usually up to the nearest öS5/€0.36 or öS10/€0.73 depending on how much you've spent and how good the service. In more expensive restaurants, you'll find the bill arrives with a fifteen percent service charge already tacked onto the total.

Banks and changing money
Out in the Austrian countryside, in small pensions, restaurants and shops, you'll find that cash is often the sole method of payment. In fact, there are plenty of relatively large towns where cash is still very much preferred. Make sure you always have a supply of cash on you, otherwise it's perfectly possible to carry your money in the form of debit/credit cards and withdraw money from cashpoints. Although not as convenient, travellers' cheques are still a good, safe option. Most banks in the West keep Austrian Schillings on hand for over-the-counter exchange, and it's a good idea to bring a small supply with you in case you can't find an exchange outlet on the first night.

Banking hours vary, but are generally Monday to Friday 8am to 12.30pm and 1.30 or 2pm to 3 or 4pm. Banks stay open until 5.30pm on Thursdays. Outside these hours, you will have to rely on the Wechselstube , or exchange booths. Those with the longest hours (typically daily 8am-8pm) are usually found at big-city train stations and at airports. There are also 24-hour automatic exchange machines dotted around the bigger towns, accepting notes of most major currencies, although commission rates may be more punitive than those charged in a bank.

Best of France

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La Rochelle
The city of La Rochelle was the first city in the world to provide free bikes - "city bikes", back in the 70's. Free to use for the day. La Rochelle also has beautiful beaches all around where you can enjoy and relax, La Rochelle is also famous for its towers some of them are: La Tour de la Lanterne, Tour Saint-Nicolas and la Tour de la Chaine.

The French Alps
If you like skying this is a good option, the French Alps are imponent and majestic, the perfect place to sky, the Mount Blanc is the highest mountain in Western Europe with an altitude of 4808 meters. There are also shop markets and valleys with trees and lakes, the landscape is simply fascinating.

The Eiffel Tower
This is probably the most known monument in France, but at the beginning it was a not very well accepted construction, french citizens did not like it and thought it was a waste of money. This iron tower was built on the Champ de Mars beside the River Seine in Paris, the tower replaced the Washington Monument and was called the Tower Eiffel in honor of its designer, engineer Gustave Eiffel.

Champagne
Champagne is a province located at the northeast of France, and is well known for its famous white wine. Champagne is mostly fermented in two sizes bottles, standard bottle (750 mL), and Magnum (1.5 L). In general, magnums are thought to be higher quality, as there is less oxygen in the bottle, and the volume to surface area favors the creation of appropriately-sized bubbles.

Chartres Cathedral
Chartres is truly one of the greatest of all French Gothic cathedrals. Cath้drale Notre-Dame de Chartres is located less than 100 km (about 50 miles) south of Paris and is considered to be one of the finest examples of the "high Gothic" style of architecture.

Germany Travel Guide

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From the high Alps in the South, the Bavarian plain, and the flowing hills of central Germany to the coast of the North and Baltic Sea: it all looks like a miniature train landscape packed with the nicest of old towns, medieval houses, gothic churches and small villages.

Thanks to the different regional princedoms, earldoms, monarchies and states Germany did not unite until the last centuries. Thus Germany has not one but many major cities. And each city has its own unique character, formed by its history and the surrounding region. Each is a whole new world unto itself in which you will experience not only different architectural styles and art treasures but also a very distinctive lifestyle. Local traditions and mentalities are clearly reflected everywhere - in the arts, the nightlife, the shops, the pubs and restaurants and the way people work and live.

Germany's cities have endless pleasant surprises in store for those who enjoy good food and drink. In addition to top-quality international cooking each region has its own local specialities, ranging from hearty country fare at simple inns to modern light cuisine at star-rated restaurants. Accompanied by our world-famous beers and wines, all this plenty is guaranteed to make your tour of Germany's cities an unforgettable culinary experience.

Discover the beautiful Southwest of Germany with cities like Freiburg, Heidelberg and Tubingen. In the western part cities still have some french influence, discover Bonn, Dusseldorf, Cologne- the heart of the Rhineland, Trier, the oldest city of Germany and a former capital of the Roman Empire or Aachen with its impressive cathedral and history back to Charlemagne.

Today, Germany is also an industrial powerhouse. In the Ruhrgebiet ( Essen, Oberhausen, Duisburg and surroundings) there is heavy industry, different car brands like Mercedes (near Stuttgart ), BMW and VW make Germany one of the world's biggest car producers and Frankfurt is the country's bank and finance centre, called also "Mainhattan" ("Main" is a river in Frankfurt). All this makes the standard of living one of the highest in the world.

Getting France

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There are many different ways of getting France, you can travel by air, by bus, or by train, all of them have enough capacity and the prices are also comfortable. You can reserve some direct passage, but other companies offer benefits on negotiation of special prices.

Now there is a easiest and exciting way to travel to France from Great Britain, with the Eurotunnel, inaugurated in 1994 now you can get France in approximately 35 minutes from Folkestone to Calais/Coquelles, you can take a car from there or you can take the classic train, the service is open 24 hours a day and the 365 days of the year.

Travelling by plane is a good option too, if you are in any of UK's regional airports it'll be cheap and easy to get to Paris, and not only the capital but also all the french cities. The competence always benefits the consumer and this is not the exception, flight operators are competing all the time for getting more passengers than the other one, the prices gets as little as possible in the market, specially when you are travelling to Nice or Paris.

There are several options available if you want to travel by train, Ports all along the south coast of England (Portsmouth, Southampton, Plymouth, Poole) will take you to Roscoff, Le Havre, Cherbourg, Caen and Dieppe in northern France, if you're travelling from London to Paris you can get there in approximately 2.5 hours, Eurostar provides a passenger service which you can join either in London at Waterloo or at Ashford in Kent. Ferries are very comfortable in France, they are equiped with restaurants, entertainment for adults and children, and places to relax.

Travel by sea is the relaxing option, you can enjoy the journey specially if you travel in summer, when the weather is perfect.

To have your passport valid is very necessary if you are planning to visit France, check if it is valid all the time you will be in this country.

Money & Costs of France

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Credit and debit cards are convenient and relatively secure. Visa and MasterCard (Access or Eurocard) are widely accepted; AmEx cards are useful at more upmarket establishments. In general, all three cards can be used in shops, supermarkets, for train travel, car rentals, autoroute tolls and cash advances. Remember you'll need to know your PIN number ( le code ) to use a credit card in many hotels, shops and restaurants.

Currency
Name .................................Euro
Symbol ..............................€
Euro notes come in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500. It is often difficult to get change for a €500.00 note.

One euro is divided into 100 cents or centimes. Coins of 1, 2 and 5 centimes are copper-coloured; coins of 10, 20 and 50 centimes are gold-coloured; 1 and 2 euro coins are gold-and-silver coloured. It's a good idea to keep a supply of various coins for parking meters, laundrettes, tolls etc.

Changing Your Money
The cheapest and most convenient way to change money in France is via ATMs (known as DABs in French); they accept all the major international credit and bank cards. You get the best exchange rate by using a credit card for purchases and a debit card for cash. Travellers cheques are safe and almost universally accepted, especially in larger towns and tourist centres; they also offer better exchange rates than cash. Post offices that exchange travellers cheques give a good rate. Major train stations and fancy hotels also have exchange facilities which usually operate in the evening, at the weekend and during holidays, but the rates are generally poor.

Money Tips
The land of the €5.00 café au lait is not exactly Europe's cheapest destination, but that doesn't mean you have to break the bank to visit. Devoted scrimpers can get by on around €50.00 per day, though it means a whole lot of brie-and-baguettings in the park. For a more well-rounded culinary experience and a comfy bed or two, a minimum of €90.00 is in order. Of course, for the Dom Perignon crowd, those figures might not cover even the day's pourboires - count on dropping €200.00 and up if you're really living large. Student and senior citizen discounts are common. Whatever your budget, figure on everything being up to 50% more expensive in Paris.

When to go to France

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Spring offers the best weather to visitors, with beach tourism picking up in May. Temperatures aren't too bad in autumn, although the short days mean limited sunlight and the cold starts to make itself felt towards the end of the season, even along the Côte d'Azur. Winter means playing in the snow in France's Alps and Pyrenees, though the Christmas school holidays send hordes of tadpoles in uniform scurrying for the slopes. Mid-July through to the end of August is when most city dwellers take their annual five weeks' vacation to the coasts and mountains, and the half-desolate cities tend to shut down a bit accordingly. The same happens during February and March.

Weather
France has a predominantly temperate climate, with mild winters, except in mountain areas and the northeast. The Atlantic has a profound impact on the northwest, where the weather is characterised by high humidity, often violent westerly winds and lots of rain. France's northeast has a classic continental climate, with fairly hot summers and cold winters. Midway between the two, the Paris basin boasts the nation's lowest annual precipitation, but rainfall patterns are erratic. The southern coastal plains are subject to a pleasant Mediterranean climate: frost is rare, spring and autumn downpours are sudden but brief and summer is virtually without rain. The south is also the region of the mistral , a cold, dry wind that blows down the Rhône Valley for about 100 days a year. Relentless and unforgiving in spring, it is blamed for sending people into fits of pique.

Map of France

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France Travel Guide

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France is the most visited country in the world. It has everything that you could ever want to see on your holidays: a great city like Paris, good beaches, more monuments than any other country, lovely nature, incredible mountain scenery; need I go on? France is also a very pleasant place to stay. It has good food, great wines and people enjoy their lives. And the best thing is, maybe apart from Paris, living in France does not have to be expensive. The North of France consists of the flatlands around the town of Lille and the Channel. The area will remind visitors in many ways of Belgium and the Netherlands. The Grand' Place in Lille for example is a lot like that of Brussels.

Paris, the city of light and its surroundings are one of the most visited areas. Paris is without a doubt one of the most beautiful cities on the planet.

West of France is turned towards the Atlantic Coast. In the north Normandy & Brittany have rolling hills, sandy beaches and quiet little harbour towns. Normandy & Brittany have a more rugged coast and many neolithic sites. It has quite a distinct atmosphere from the rest of the country; you can still sense the Celtic origin of the region and its inhabitants.

The eastern part of France consists of the Alsace, Lorraine, Franche Comt้ and Burgundy regions. The landscape has rolling hills and many beautiful cities, such as Metz, Strasbourg, Nancy and Dijon. This region produces many famous wines, including magnificent pinot noirs and chardonnays valued the world over, as well as the famous "Yellow wine" from the Jura mountain vineyard.

The Center of France is in many ways the most quiet part of France. But the great treasure of this region is the Loire valley , with many great castles and beautiful towns. Chartres with its famous cathedral and Tours rate among the most beautiful French cities.

The Alps are great for skiing in winter and hiking in summer. Albertville, Grenoble and Chamonix have all hosted the Olympic games. But the Alps also have nice towns to visit, such as Chamb้ry, Annecy or Grenoble .

The South with its lovely nature, good food, roman ruins and of course the Riviera draws a lot of visitors every year. Towns like Orange, and Arles but also big cities like Marseille and Toulon are must sees. The Provence is dotted with pleasant small villages. In the South west of France the Dordogne is one of the most quintessential French regions. The valley is so pretty, the towns are so cute and the food is so good, that it is hard to believe that the people who live here go somewhere else for their holidays. The Languedoc has its own language and culture. In the south of the Languedoc you find the Pyrenees, a great mountain range separating France from Spain, where you can hike and ski. The towns of Toulouse and Montpellier are nice and the medieval town of Carcassone is a top destination.

Credits : http://www.justfrance.org/

Best of Germany

2008-06-07T04:32:00.000-07:00

The Rhine
In Germany, The Rhine has a spectacular beauty and it is a popular holiday destination. There you can find impressive places to visit like castles, cathedrals, vineyards and hiking trails. Its magnificent scenery inspired a lot of painters and poets. In fact, Germany is full of castles, but the Rhine has an especially amount of important castles. Some are ruins and many of them have survived the past of the years.

Trier
Trier is located in Mosel River Valley, is known as Germany’s oldest city. The City was one of the seats of the old Roman Empire, a proof of that is the amazing ruins’ architecture. The most dominant structure is the mixture of two churches: The Dom St. Peter and the Liebfrauenkirche, both build upon ruins.

Berchtesgaden
Berchtesgadem, with its beautiful scenery, is an attractive town to visit. The city is mostly visited in winter by its ski resorts on the edge of the Berchtesgaden National Park. There is also the “Eagle’s Nest”, the famous mountain that was refuge of Hitler in the World War II, from there you have an impressive view of the Berchtesgaden area.

Wurzburg
Near from Frankfurt, Wuzburg is a vibrant university town surrounded by vineyards and full of architectural splendors. Its cultural scene includes traditions and popular events like the Mozart Festival and the Africa Festival which attract many visitors every year.

Bamberg
Bamberg is a city with an original character and a very special atmosphere. 1000 years of history are united in an Old Town that is a cultural and architectural site of European rank.

Potsdam
Potsdam, capital of Brandenburg state, is a suburb of Germany’s cosmopolitan capital: Berlin. This beautiful baroque city is home for the magnificent palace of Sanssouci that is comparable with other amazing European royal palaces like Versailles and Windsor Castle.

Getting there & around Germany

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Getting There
The main arrival/departure points for flights in Germany are Frankfurt-am-Main, Munich and Düsseldorf. Frankfurt is Europe's busiest airport after Heathrow. An airport departure tax is included in ticket prices. Thanks to the spread of low-cost airlines, it is now often cheaper to fly to Germany from around Europe than to take the train. While train travel is often more expensive than catching a bus, it's generally faster, more comfortable (particularly for overnight travel) and more efficient. Germany is served by an excellent highway system connected to the rest of Western Europe. Roads from Eastern Europe are being upgraded but some border crossings are a little slow, especially from Poland. To enter Germany with a car or motorbike, you must have third-party insurance. Ferries run between Germany's northern coast and Scandinavia and the UK.

bus
There are several budget bus companies that run services to Germany from the rest of Europe and the UK. Prices are very appealing and the buses are getting more and more comfortable; if you're travelling in an off-season (when you might score some room to stretch out) or are travelling short distances, they are often a good budget option.

car
Travelling to Germany with your own car or motorcycle is easy. All you need is a valid driving licence, your car registration certificate and proof of insurance. Foreign cars must display a nationality sticker unless they have official Euro-Plates (number plates that include their country's Euro symbol). The main gateways to southern Germany are Munich, Freiburg and Passau. Coming from Poland or the Czech Republic may entail delays at the border.

Coming from the UK, high-speed Eurotunnel shuttle trains whisk cars, motorbikes, bicycles and coaches in 35 minutes from Folkestone through the Channel Tunnel to Coquelles, 5km (3mi) southwest of Calais, in soundproofed and air-conditioned comfort. From there, you can be in Aachen in about three and a half hours.

air
Frankfurt International Airport is the main gateway for transcontinental flights, although Düsseldorf and Munich also receive their share of overseas air traffic. There are also sizeable airports in Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn, Stuttgart and Freiburg (EuroAirport), and smaller ones in such cities as Bremen, Dresden, Erfurt, Hanover, Leipzig, Münster-Osnabrück, Nuremberg, Karlsruhe-Baden-Baden and Friedrichshafen.

Some of Europe's new budget airlines - Ryan Air in particular - keep their fares low by flying to some pretty odd and remote airports, some of which are little more than recycled military airstrips. The biggest of these is Frankfurt-Hahn, which is actually near the Moselle River, about 110km (68mi) northwest of Frankfurt proper.

rail
Long-distance trains connecting major German cities with those in other countries are called EuroCity (EC) trains. For longhaul trips the most comfortable option is to take an overnight train. You can choose between Schlafwagen (sleepers), which are comfortable compartments for up to three people, with washbasin; Liegewagen (couchettes), which sleep between four and six people; and Sitzwagen (seat carriage), which have roomy, reclinable seats. On daytime trains, reservations are highly recommended during the peak summer season and around major holidays. They can be made as late as a few minutes before departure.

water
The Romanshorn-Friedrichshafen car ferry provides the quickest way across Lake Constance between Switzerland and Germany.

Germany's main ferry ports are Kiel, Lübeck and Travemünde in Schleswig-Holstein, and Rostock and Sassnitz (Rügen Island) in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. All have services to Scandinavia. Ferries to the UK leave from Cuxhaven in Schleswig-Holstein. Return tickets are often cheaper than two one-way tickets.

Getting Around
Getting around Germany is easy. Domestic air travel is extensive but unless you're in an awful hurry, you might as well save your money - the German train network is wonderful. The eastern and western train systems have now been fully merged. Numerous fares and ticket passes, including Eurailpass and GermanRail Pass are available. There is usually a surcharge for the InterCity Express (ICE) trains but it's worth it to travel 300km/h (190mph) through the German countryside. Forget about buses until you're in train-unfriendly terrain.

German roads are excellent, and motorised transport can be a great way to tour the country, although most towns have problems with car-parking. The national and (in)famous motorway network known as autobahnen can be wonderful - or it can be a nightmare: speed-of-light Porsches and BMWs looming monster-size and impatient in your rear-view mirror are one factor, soul-destroying traffic jams are another. Technically there is no general speed limit on the autobahnen, but, in an effort to increase safety and curb noise pollution, many segments have speed limits ranging from 100km/hr (62mph) to 130km/hr (80mph). On other parts of the autobahn system, high performance sports cars will pass you in excess of 250 kmh (155mph). Be careful!

Bicycle touring in Germany is very popular. There are often separate cycling routes in the cities, towns and in the countryside, but cycling on the autobahnen is strictly verboten .

bus
Basically, wherever there is a train, take it. Buses are generally much slower and less dependable, less efficient and less comfortable than trains. There are, however, some regions where the terrain makes train travel more difficult or impossible; the Harz Mountains, sections of the Bavarian Forest, the Black Forest and the Alpine foothills are among such areas. Germany does not have a nationwide bus system, meaning that separate bus companies, each with their own tariffs and schedules, operate in the different regions.

The frequency of service varies dramatically, depending on the destination. It can be as little as three buses daily, and sometimes even fewer at weekends. Routes geared to commuters suspend operations altogether on weekends. If you depend on buses to get around, always keep this in mind or risk finding yourself stuck in a remote place over the weekend.

car
Motoring around Germany is an enjoyable and flexible way to see the country. German roads are generally so excellent that you're less likely to spot a pothole than a UFO. The country's pride and joy are its 11,000km (6835mi) of Autobahnen (motorways, freeways), which extend to all nooks and crannies of the land. These are supplemented by an extensive network of Bundesstrassen (secondary roads, highways). No tolls are charged on public roads. Many tertiary roads have no highway numbers and road signage is often inadequate or confusing so having a good road map a must.

bicycle
Bicycle touring through Germany is fun, popular and eminently feasible, in large part because of a dense network of lightly travelled secondary roads and dedicated bike paths. In the cities you'll often find special bike lanes and pavements separated into different sections for pedestrians and cyclists. Bicycles are strictly verboten on the autobahns but can be taken along on most trains. Germany has over 200 well-signposted long-distance routes.

air
Most large and many smaller German cities have their own airports and numerous carriers operate domestic flights within Germany.

Unless you're flying from one end of the country to the other, say Berlin-Munich or Hamburg-Munich, planes are only marginally quicker than trains if you factor in the time it takes to get to/from the airports. Fares have become more competitive in recent years but generally prices are designed with business travellers in mind.

Disabled Travellers
Overall, Germany caters well for the needs of people with disabilities ( Behinderte ), especially people who use wheelchairs. You'll find access ramps and/or lifts in many public buildings, including train stations, museums, theatres and cinemas. Newer hotels have rooms for mobility-impaired guests with extra-wide doors and spacious bathrooms. However, other disabilities (such as blindness or deafness) are not as well catered for, and German organisations representing people with disabilities continue to lobby for improvements.

The web page of the German National Tourism Office (www.germany-tourism.de) has an entire section dedicated to information about vacationing in Germany with a disability (under Travel Tips) with helpful links. Many local and regional tourism offices also have special brochures for people with disabilities. The Deutsche Bahn operates a Mobility Service Centre (tel 01805-512 512) whose operators can answer questions about station and train access, and can help you plan a route requiring minimal train changes. With one day's notice, they can also arrange for someone to meet you at the station and assist you in any way necessary. Generally, all ICE trains and most IC/EC, IR and S-Bahn trains can accommodate people in wheelchairs. Guide dogs are allowed on all trains. In cities, U-Bahns and buses are becoming increasingly wheelchair-friendly as well.

Money & Costs of Germany

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Large shops, petrol stations and hotels usually take credit cards but Germans are still less credit card-friendly than other Europeans so keep a supply of cash on hand. The plethora of ATMS will kindly oblige you with adequate Euros.

Currency
Name ...................Euro
Symbol ................€
Euro notes come in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500. It is often difficult to get change for a €500.00 note.

One euro is divided into 100 cents or centimes. Coins of 1, 2 and 5 centimes are copper-coloured; coins of 10, 20 and 50 centimes are gold-coloured; 1 and 2 euro coins are gold-and-silver coloured. It's a good idea to keep a supply of various coins for parking meters, laundrettes, tolls etc.

Changing Your Money
All the major international brands of plastic - MasterCard, Visa and American Express - are becoming more widely accepted, but don't assume that you'll be able to use your card to pay for things; inquire first. ATMs are ubiquitous throughout Germany and you should have no problem accessing your credit or debit account back home. Foreign currency, including travellers cheques, can be exchanged at some banks and at exchange bureaux (eg Reisebank branches) in major cities.

Money Tips
It's easy to spend lots of money in Germany. If you stay in hostels, have some sort of rail pass and restrict yourself to cheap takeaways or prepare your own food, it's possible to get by on €50.00 a day. Those with more capacious wallets wishing to eat at mid-range restaurants most days, visit museums at will, travel freely by public transport and stay in mid-range hotels with fluffy duvets should count on dropping at least €100.00 a day. Driving will add significantly to expenses, though for three or more people car travel is cheaper per kilometre than taking the train.

When to go to Germany

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Germany is a fine destination year-round, but most people visit between May and September when sunny skies are most likely and much of life moves outdoors. Beer gardens and cafes bustle at all hours; outdoor events and festivals enliven cities and villages; and hiking, cycling and swimming (in lakes or pools) are popular pursuits - at least as long as the weather plays along. Remember that rain is a possibility in any month. The flipside of summer travel is, of course, larger crowds at museums and other attractions and traffic jams at places such as Lake Constance. Accommodation needn't be hard to come by unless you're drawn to beach and mountain resorts popular with German holiday-makers.

The shoulder seasons (from March to May and from October to early November) bring fewer tourists, lower accommodation prices and often surprisingly pleasant weather. In April and May, when flowers and fruit trees are in bloom, it can be mild and sunny. Indian summers that stretch well into autumn are not uncommon.

With the exception of winter sports, activities between November and early March are likely to focus more on culture and city life. In these months, skies tend to be gloomy and the mercury often drops below freezing. On the plus side, there are fewer visitors and shorter queues (except in the winter resorts). Just pack the right clothes and keep in mind that there are only six to eight hours of daylight. In December the sun (if there is any) sets around 15:30 .

Weather
Germany is not prey to dramatic climatic extremes, although there are regional differences. The most reliably good weather is from May to October, with high summer a good bet for mid 20°C (low 70°F) shorts-and-t-shirt conditions, even in the north. Autumn is a good time to visit Germany. As the tourist scrum disperses and the forests turn golden, it's not too stifling to be active but still warm enough to leave you thirsty for a few well-deserved steins. Winter is frosty and wet, especially in the south, with snow rarely settling for long except in the high country.

Map of Germany

2008-06-07T03:30:00.000-07:00

History of Switzerland

2008-06-06T09:57:00.000-07:00

Switzerland may be neutral but it is certainly not flavourless. The fusion of German, French and Italian ingredients has formed a robust national culture, and the country's alpine landscapes have enough zing to reinvigorate the most jaded traveller.

Goethe summed up Switzerland succinctly as a combination of 'the colossal and the well-ordered'. You can be sure that your trains and letters will be on time. The tidy, just-so precision of Swiss towns is tempered by the lofty splendour of the landscapes that surround them.

Pre-20th-Century History
The first inhabitants of the region were a Celtic tribe, the Helvetia. The Romans appeared on the scene in 107 BC by way of the St Bernard Pass, but owing to the difficulty of the terrain their conquest of the area was never decisive. They were gradually driven back by the Germanic Altemanni tribe, which settled in the 5th century. The territory was united under the Holy Roman Empire in 1032 but central control was never very tight. That was all changed by the Germanic Habsburg family, which became the most powerful dynasty in Central Europe. Habsburg expansion was spearheaded by Rudolph I, who gradually brought the squabbling nobles to heel.

Upon Rudolph's death in 1291, local leaders saw a chance to gain independence. Their pact of mutual assistance is seen as the origin of the Swiss Confederation, and their struggles against the Habsburgs is idealised in the familiar legend of William Tell. Encouraged by early successes, the Swiss gradually acquired a taste for territorial expansion themselves and gained independence from the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1499. After a number of military victories, the Swiss finally over-reached themselves when they took on a combined force of French and Venetians in 1515. Realising they could no longer compete against larger powers with better equipment, they renounced expansionist policies and declared their neutrality.

The Reformation in the 16th century caused upheaval throughout Europe. The Protestant teachings of Luther, Zwingli and Calvin spread quickly, although central Switzerland remained Catholic. While the rest of Europe was fighting it out in the Thirty Years' War, the Swiss closed ranks and kept out of trouble. At the end of the war in 1648 they were recognised in the Treaty of Westphalia as a neutral state. Nevertheless, the French Republic invaded Switzerland in 1798 and established the Helvetic Republic. The Swiss, however, did not take too kindly to such centralised control. Napoleon was finally sent packing following his defeat by the British and Prussians at Waterloo. The ensuing Congress of Vienna guaranteed Switzerland's independence and permanent neutrality in 1815.

In 1848 a new federal constitution was agreed on and it is largely still in place today. Bern was established as the capital and the federal assembly was set up to take care of national issues. Switzerland was then able to concentrate on economic and social matters. It developed industries predominantly dependent on highly skilled labour. Networks of railways and roads were built, opening up previously inaccessible Alpine regions and helping the development of tourism. The international Red Cross was founded in Geneva in 1863 and compulsory free education was introduced.

Modern History
The Swiss have carefully guarded their neutrality in the 20th century. Their only WWI involvement lay in the organising of Red Cross units. In WWII, however, Switzerland played a more insidious role as an amenable money launderer for Nazi Germany. Switzerland's quiet anti-Semitism included shutting its borders to Jewish refugees and forcibly repatriating many of those who escaped Nazi-occupied Europe, in full knowledge of the fate which awaited them. While the rest of Europe underwent the painful process of repairing the ravages of war, Switzerland was able to expand from an already powerful commercial, financial and industrial base. Zürich developed as an international banking and insurance centre, and many international bodies, such as the World Health Organisation, based their headquarters in Geneva.

Afraid that its neutrality would be compromised, Switzerland declined to become a member of the United Nations (though it currently has 'observer' status) or NATO. It did, however, join EFTA (the European Free Trade Association). In the face of other EFTA nations applying for EU (European Union) membership, Switzerland finally made its own application in 1992.

As a prelude to full EU membership Switzerland joined the EEA (European Economic Area), yet the government's strategy lay in ruins after citizens rejected the EEA in a referendum in December 1992. Switzerland's EU application has consequently been put on ice; in the meantime the government has been laying groundwork for closer integration with the rest of Europe. In 1998 the Swiss government agreed to pay US$1.2 billion compensation to relatives of Holocaust victims whose funds were deposited in Swiss banks.

Recent History
The year 2001 was truly Switzerland's annus horribilis. The collapse of national airline Swissair, a canyoning accident in the Bernese Oberland killing 21 tourists, a gun massacre in the Zug parliament and a fatal fire in the Gotthard Tunnel within 12 months all prompted intense soul-searching.

Switzerland swung to the conservative right in its parliamentary government in 2003, and began to reach out more to the world. It finally became the 190th member of the UN, despite the UN being founded and headquartered in Geneva for aeons. In 2005 it joined Europe's 'Schengen' passport-free travel zone and, in theory, opened its borders to workers from the 10 new EU members.

It still isn't a member of the EU itself and, although the French-speaking regions would like it, doesn't look like becoming one anytime soon. However, in many ways Switzerland no longer views isolation as quite so splendid.

Credits : http://www.lonelyplanet.com/

History of Germany

2008-06-06T09:47:00.000-07:00

Germany wears its riches well: elegant big-city charm, small picture-postcard towns, pagan-inspired harvest festivals, a wealth of art and culture and the perennial pleasures of huge tracts of forest, delightful castles and fine wine and beer are all there for the savouring.

Deep in the heart of Europe, Germany has had a seminal impact on Continental history. From Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire to Otto von Bismarck's German Reich, Nazism and the rise and fall of the Berlin Wall, no other nation has moulded Europe the way Germany has - for better or worse.

Pre-20th-Century History
Germany's hill-and-trough history kicked in early: from the time that everyone's favourite fossils, the Neanderthals, left their jaw-jutting remains in the Neander Valley near Düsseldorf, this joint has been in the thick of it. All of Europe's great empires got their paws into Germany, but none was ever able to count all its inhabitants as faithful subjects. Different pockets of fierce resistance met the Roman legions (50 BC to the 5th century AD), the Frankish conqueror, Charlemagne (up to the early 9th century), and Otto the Great's Holy Roman Empire (from late in the 10th century). By the time the house of Habsburg, ruling from Vienna, took control in the 13th century it was little more than a conglomerate of German-speaking states run by parochial princes.

The Habsburgs muddled on until the devastating Thirty Years War (1618-48), sparked by ongoing religious and nationalist conflicts. Europe had been simmering ever since 1517 when Martin Luther tacked 95 suggestions for improved service to his local church door in Wittenberg. It took a bloody good stoush to settle everyone down and secure the rights of both Protestants and Catholics. Germany lost a third of its population in the process. Local princes assumed complete sovereignty over a patchwork of some 300 states, which made it all too easy for Napoleon to come along in the early 19th century and start adding them to his scrapbook. The French never quite managed to subdue Prussia, which became the centre of German resistance. It was Prussia that led the 1813 war that put an end to Napoleon's German aspirations in a decisive battle at Leipzig. In 1866 Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia, annexed most of Germany, consolidating his position as the biggest wig in Europe with a resounding victory over France in 1871. The Prussian king, Wilhelm I, was instated as Kaiser and a united Germany hit the world stage for the first time.

Modern History
Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck in 1890, lingered long enough to lead Germany into WWI, then snuck off to Holland in 1918 when he realised the war wasn't going to end in a ticker-tape parade. Germany struggled with civil unrest and a disastrous peace, uniting only in dislike of the reigning Weimar Republic. Then came Adolf Hitler, an Austrian drifter and German army veteran who was able to turn general disaffection into a focused lunacy. In 1933 his National Socialist German Worker's (or Nazi) Party assumed brutal and absolute authority over Germany. Extravagant military spending and blasé border bending gave way to outright aggression, WWII, and the unrivalled horror of the Holocaust. Even the Germans were surprised by the success of their initial invasions, but by 1943 a litany of heavy losses set the tone for the sluggish march to 1945's unconditional surrender.

Postwar Germany, its cities largely rubble, was divided up between the Allies, with Britain, France and the USA consolidating the western portion into the Federal Republic of Germany, and the Soviet zone transmogrifying into the communist German Democratic Republic. This formula for division was repeated in Berlin. West Germany received massive injections of US capital, attracting many workers from the miserable economic conditions in the East until some bright Communist spark had the idea of building a wall around West Berlin and sealing the rest of the border. The Cold War's icy eye focused on Berlin. Over the next 25 years West Germany became one of the world's most prosperous nations while its communist Siamese sibling suffered. The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe has no more potent symbol than the opening of the Berlin frontier in 1989 - one of world history's better parties.

Recent History
Helmut Kohl's era as chancellor, marked by the reunification of Germany, came to an end in 1998 when a 'red-green' coalition of Social Democrats and Greens took office under Gerhard Schroeder. In 2005 Angela Merkel, a Christian Democrat at the head of a 'grand coalition' with the Social Democrats, became the first woman, the first East German and the first scientist to serve as chancellor.

Although the euphoria of reunification has subsided and there is some resentment and disaffection from both sides, Germany is working towards true unity in typically sedulous fashion. In the 1900s Germany absorbed the majority of refugees from the former Yugoslavia, and these and other immigrants have recently been the targets of racist attacks. However, the extreme right wing, although insidious and occasionally violent, is politically weak. Germany suffers from high unemployment, structural problems in the economy and fierce competition in world markets but at least so far social dislocation has been minimal. In recent years, the economic and social integration of Germany's large Turkish minority has been the subject of public debate.

For most Germans the highlight of 2006 was the FIFA Football World Cup held throughout the country, with the final (won by Italy's Azzurri)held in Berlin. Although the home side failed to win the trophy the event was hugely successful and almost totally trouble-free.

General Information
* Capital City: Berlin
* Language: German is the native language, though in urban areas knowledge of English is high particularly amongst younger people. In large cities it is usually no problem to find service people who speak English, however in villages and suburbs English may not be frequently spoken. If you are having difficulties, look for someone who appears to be a student or a business person.
* Size: Germany is a relatively large country. At 357,022 Km2 it is the 63rd largest country in the world. For comparison Germany is smaller than France and Spain but slightly larger than Poland. Germany is about 25% smaller than the US state of California.
* Population: With nearly 82 million people, Germany is the most populated country in Europe.
* Money: The official currency of Germany is the Euro. Other currencies such as the US Dollar are not generally accepted; however exchange booths and ATMs are widely available.
* Visas: US citizens do not require visas only a valid passport. Schengen visas, accepted by many European countries are valid here. For information about visas to Germany, see this list of German Embassies and Consulates.
* Religion: The Christian population of Germany is almost equally divided between Catholic and Protestants with the Catholics more dominant in the south and the Protestants more dominant in the North. About 5% of the population is Muslim, which reflects Germany’s strong ties to Turkey. Germany has a relatively large population of Jewish citizens, most having arrived relatively recently from Russia, but they make up less than 1% of the population.

Credits : http://www.lonelyplanet.com/

History of France

2008-06-06T09:37:00.000-07:00

Whether it's gastronomic greatness, artistic endeavour or cultural cachet you're looking for, there's no doubt that France still sits right at the top of the European heap. France is the country for which the word chic was invented - seductive and aloof, old-fashioned and forward-looking, but always characterised by a certain je ne sais quoi .

The country that gave the world champagne, casseroles and Camembert is justly famous for its cooking, and you'll find there are plenty of places to indulge yourself. But while France is undoubtedly a place to eat and drink to your heart's content, there's much more to this fascinating country than cutting-edge cuisine.

Pre-20th-Century History
Humans have inhabited France for about 90,000 years. The Celtic Gauls arrived between 1500 and 500 BC; after several centuries of conflict with Rome, Gauls lost the territory to Julius Caesar in 52 BC, and by the 2nd century AD the region had been partly Christianised. In the 5th century the Franks (thus 'France') and other Germanic groups overran the country.

The Middle Ages were marked by a succession of power struggles between warring Frankish dynasties. The Capetian Dynasty was a time of prosperity and scholarly revivalism despite continued battles with England over feudal rights. During this period, France was also embroiled in the Crusades, a holy war instigated by the Church against non-Christians. The Capetian Dynasty waned by the early 15th century as France continued to fight England in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), which featured 17-year-old firebrand Jeanne d'Arc.

Religious and political persecution, culminating in the Wars of Religion (1562-98), continued to threaten France's stability during the 16th century. In 1572, some 3000 Protestant Huguenots were slaughtered in Paris. The Huguenots were later guaranteed religious, civil and political rights. By the early 17th century the country was held in thrall by Cardinal Richelieu, who moved to establish an absolute monarchy and increase French power in Europe.

Louis XIV (the Sun King) ascended the throne in 1643 at the age of five and ruled until 1715. Throughout his reign, he hounded the Protestant minority, quashed the feuding aristocracy and created the first centralised French state. But as the 18th century progressed, the ancien régime (old order) became dangerously out of sync with the rest of the country, and was further weakened by the Enlightenment's anti-establishment and anticlerical ideas. France's involvement in the Seven Years' War (1756-63) and the American War of Independence (1776-83) was financially ruinous for the monarchy, and the latter provided ammunition for opponents of French absolutism.

When the king tried to neutralise the power of reform-minded economists, the urban masses took to the streets. On 14 July 1789, a Parisian mob attacked the Invalides, seized weapons and stormed the Bastille prison, the ultimate symbol of the despotism of the ancien régime . At first, the Revolution was in the hands of moderates, but from this milieu emerged the radical Jacobins, led by Robespierre, Danton and Marat. They established the First Republic in 1792, holding virtual dictatorial control over the country during the Reign of Terror (1793-94), which saw mass executions and religious persecution. Ultimately the Revolution turned on its own, and many of its leaders, including Robespierre and Danton, were pruned by Madame la Guillotine.

Buoyed by a series of military victories abroad, mercurial Napoleon Bonaparte assumed domestic power in 1799, sparking a series of wars in which France came to control most of Europe. Ultimately, a disastrous campaign against Russia in 1812 led to Bony's downfall - he was banished to the tiny Mediterranean island of Elba. His escape and reinstallation as Emperor lasted 100 days before he was defeated by the English at Waterloo. The English exiled him to the remote South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. Napoleon is remembered as a great hero not so much for his military gusto but because he preserved the bulk of changes wrought by the Revolution and promulgated the Napoleonic Code, which remains the basis of the French legal system.

During the 19th century, France was characterised by inept government, quixotic wars and the founding of the Third Republic (1870). The importance of the army and the church was reduced, and separation of church and state was instituted. Around the same time, the Entente Cordiale ended colonial rivalry between France and Britain in Africa, creating a spirit of cooperation.

Modern History
France's involvement in WWI came at high cost: over a million troops were killed, large parts of the country were devastated, industrial production dropped and the franc was seriously devalued. The country fared little better during WWII, when it capitulated to Germany and the lackey Vichy government was installed. General Charles de Gaulle, France's under-secretary of war, set up a government-in-exile and underground resistance in London. France was liberated by Allied forces in mid-1944.

De Gaulle returned to Paris and set up a provisional government, but resigned as president in 1946. Emboldened by American aid, the French reasserted colonial control in Indochina, but their forces were defeated by Ho Chi Minh's cadres at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. France also tried to suppress Algerian independence. De Gaulle returned to power in 1958 and negotiated an end to the war in Algeria four years later; in the meantime, almost all of the other French colonies in Africa had achieved independence.

In May 1968, student protesters and striking workers surprised themselves and the world at large by bringing the country to a standstill. Just as anarchy was poised to engulf France, De Gaulle went on national television and told everybody to calm down, go home and leave the running of the country to him. And they did. The government then reformed the higher education system, and De Gaulle resigned as president the following year.

Resilient socialist François Mitterand was France's president from 1981 to 1995. In May 1995 he was succeeded by Jacques Chirac, who defeated the demoralised socialists and Jean-Marie Le Pen's anti-immigrant Front National (FN). A series of bombings in Paris and Lyon from July 1995 by terrorists protesting French support of the Algerian government contributed to anti-foreigner sentiment and lent a false legitimacy to the FN's racist stance.

Chirac strongly endorsed the European Union (EU), which raised his popularity, but his decision to conduct nuclear tests on the Polynesian island of Mururoa towards the end of 1995 was met with a local and international outcry. France's Pacific and Caribbean colonies have beefed up their independence rumblings, with Tahiti a recent site of particular agitation. Domestically, limits which Chirac imposed on the welfare payment system resulted in the country's largest protests since 1968. Strikes throughout the public sector over several weeks in late 1995 brought Paris to a standstill and affected the economy so badly that France's qualifications for joining the EU looked dubious.

Chirac called a snap election early in 1997, under the pretence of seeking a mandate for the final push towards meeting economic monetary union (EMU) controls. However, he did not count on the fickleness of the French people and his RPR party was ousted from government (though Chirac remains president) by an unlikely alliance between the socialists, communists and Greens.

Recent History
The nation was thrust into the international spotlight with the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, in a car accident in Paris in August 1997, and the country's first-ever World Cup victory (3-0 over odds-on favourite Brazil) in July 1998.

Presidential elections in 2002 were a shocker with racist demagogue Jean-Marie Le Pen of the FN claiming 17% of the national first round vote. In the run-off poll left-wing voters - without a candidate of their own - went for 'lesser-of-two-evils' Chirac to give him 82% of votes.
In early 2003 France was once again in the world spotlight when it insisted it would veto any UN security council resolution to go to war with Iraq. The US was rather miffed by this, and relations between France and the US remain cool.

In May 2005, a national referendum on the proposed European Constitution was soundly rejected by French voters, causing huge embarrassment to the government, and placing a considerable question mark over the country's resolutely pro-European future.

In October and November 2005, the country was rocked by several weeks of violent clashes between police and gangs of disenfranchised young people across France. The riots were sparked by the deaths of two teenagers of North-African descent who were electrocuted while apparently attempting to hide from the police, and began in the poor, ethnically-diverse banlieues (suburbs) of Paris, but quickly spread to several of the country's major cities.

In May 2007 conservative Nicolas Sarkozy convincingly defeated socialist Segolene Royale in the presidential election. The former interior minister is seen by supporters as a charismatic, dynamic leader and by opponents as a divisive, power-hungry neo-con. High on his list of priorities is rebuilding the Franco-American relationship, severely damaged by France's unreserved opposition to the Iraq War, and reinvigorating the French role in Europe.

General Information
* Capital City: Paris
* Languages: French is the native language. In touristic areas English may be spoken. However, at this time, language knowledge is not high with the French population. If you do not speak French, you may find it difficult to communicate with the locals.
* Size: France is a relatively large country. At 551,000km2 it is the 48thth largest country in the world. For comparison France is larger than Spain and Germany but smaller than the state of Texas.
* Population: With nearly 62 million people, France is one of the most populated countries in Europe. It has more citizens than the UK, but less than Germany.
* Money: The official currency of France is the Euro. Other currencies such as the US Dollar are not generally accepted, however exchange booths and ATMs are widely available.
* Visas: US citizens do not require visas only a valid passport. Schengen visas, accepted by many European countries are valid here. For information about visas to France, see this list of French Embassies and Consulates.
* Religion: The majority of the population (65-85%) is Roman Catholic. The second most popular religion in France, representing 5-10% of the population is Muslim. This is due to immigration from former French colonies in North Africa. Jewish and Protestants make up less than 5% of the population combined.

Credits : http://www.lonelyplanet.com/

Getting there & around Austria

2008-06-06T09:25:00.000-07:00

Getting There
Vienna is the main air transport hub for Austria, but Graz, Linz, Klagenfurt, Salzburg and Innsbruck all receive international flights. Flights to these cities are often a cheaper option than those to the capital, as are flights to Airport Letisko (Bratislava Airport) which is only 60km (37mi) east of Vienna in Slovakia. With advance booking, no-frills airlines can be very cheap.

Travelling by bus is a cheap but less comfortable way to cross Europe. It's easiest to book with Eurolines (www.eurolines.com; Vienna tel: 798 29 00; www.eurolines.at; Graz tel: 0316 67 11 55), a consortium of coach companies with offices all over Europe.

While the bulk of Euroline buses pass through Vienna, its 14 stops in Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg, Klagenfurt and Innsbruck.

Getting to Austria by road is simple as there are fast and well-maintained motorways through all surrounding countries. There are numerous entry points into Austria by road from Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy and Switzerland. Liechtenstein is so small that it has just one border crossing point, near Feldkirch in Austria. The presence of the Alps limits options for approaching Tyrol from the south (Switzerland and Italy). All main border-crossing points are open 24 hours. Proof of ownership of a private vehicle and a driver's licence should always be carried while driving.

Austria benefits from its central location within Europe by having excellent rail connections to all important destinations. The Thomas Cook European Timetable gives all train schedules, supplements and reservations information. It is updated monthly and is available from Thomas Cook outlets.

The Danube (Donau) is a traffic-free access route for arrivals and departures from Austria. Since the early 1990s the Danube has been connected to the Rhine by the River Main tributary and the Main-Danube canal in southern Germany.

Getting Around
Transport systems in Austria are highly developed and generally very efficient, and reliable information is usually available in English. Individual bus and train Fahrplan (timetables) are readily available, as are helpful annual timetables.

Austria's main rail provider is the Österreiche Bundesbahn (ÖBB; Austrian Federal Railways; www.oebb.at), which has an extensive countrywide rail network. This is supplemented by a handful of private railways. Wherever trains don't run, a Postbus (www.postbus.at) usually does. Timetables and prices for many train and bus connections can be found online at www.oebb.at.

Cycling is a popular activity in Austria, and most regional tourist boards have brochures on cycling facilities and routes within their region. Separate bike tracks are common, not only in cities, but also in the country. The Danube cycling trail is something of a Holy Grail for cyclists, though there are many other excellent bike routes in the country.

All large cities have at least one bike shop that doubles as a rental centre. In places where cycling is a popular pastime, such as the Wachau in Lower Austria and the Neusiedler See in Burgenland, almost all small towns have a rental shop and train stations have rental facilities.

The Danube serves as a thoroughfare between Vienna and Lower and Upper Austria. Services are generally slow, scenic excursions rather than functional means of transport.

The Postbus (Post Bus) network is best considered a backup to the rail service, more useful for reaching out-of-the-way places and local destinations than for long-distance travel. Buses are fairly reliable, and usually depart outside train stations. For remote travel, plan a day or two ahead and go on a weekday; services are reduced on Saturday, often nonexistent on Sunday.

Credits : http://www.lonelyplanet.com/

St. Paul's Cathedral

2008-06-06T09:13:00.000-07:00

The majestic St. Paul's Cathedral was built by Christofer Wren between 1675 and 1711. It has the largest dome in the world after the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

Early History
St. Paul's Cathedral has had an eventful history. The first records date from 604 AD, when Mellitus, Bishop of the East Saxons built the first wooden church on the summit of one of London's hills. At the end of the 7th century, it was built in stone by Erkenwald, Bishop of London.

In 962 and 1087, the Cathedral was destroyed by fires, but each time it was rebuilt. By that time, it was one of the largest cathedrals in Europe. Rebuildings and extensions in the 13th and 14th century enlarged the cathedral even more.

The Great Fire
But disaster struck again on the night of the 2nd of September 1666, when the great fire of London destroyed 4/5th of all of London, wiping 13,200 houses and 89 churches, including the St. Paul's Cathedral off the map.

Christopher Wren's Masterpiece
In 1669, Christopher Wren designed the so-called 'Great Model' for the new St. Paul's Cathedral. In this model, the cathedral was shaped like a Greek cross, with a portico, consisting of Corinthian columns, on the entrance. The model was topped by a striking large dome, the largest in the world after Michelangelo's dome of the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.
The design was approved in 1675, but it took until 1711 before the Cathedral was finally finished.

Credits : http://www.aviewoncities.com/

Kensington Gardens

2008-06-06T08:53:00.000-07:00

The gardens of the Kensington Palace cover around 105 ha or 260 acres and border Hyde Park on the east.

History
The history of Kensington Gardens started in 1689, when King William III and Mary II bought the Nottingham house in Kensington. The house was turned into a palace by Christopher Wren and the 12 acre large garden was enlarged by Queen Anne, partly by acquiring 100 acres of Hyde Park in 1705.

The garden was constantly redesigned, especially by Queen Anne and later by Queen Caroline. Queen Anne added the Orangerie, a red-brick building north of the Kensington Palace used for housing plants during winter time.

Present Form
The present form of the Kensington Gardens can be attributed to Queen Caroline, wife of King George II. She added the round pond and commissioned the Serpentine and Long Water, a large lake at the eastern end of the Kensington Gardens created from a string of ponds. Two summerhouses were added to the gardens, one of them - the Queen's temple - still exists.

Queen Victoria, who was born at the Kensington Palace added the Italian gardens and the Albert Memorial.

Sights & Attractions
The Kensington Gardens are very popular for walking and jogging. It is a more relaxing park than the adjacent Hyde Park.

Its most famous attraction is the Kensington Palace, the former home of Princess Diana. Other features of the park include a bronze statue of Peter Pan and the 180ft high Albert Memorial. It was built between 1864 and 1876 to commemorate Prince Albert I, husband of Queen Victoria.

Another attraction in the park is the Serpentine Gallery, a modern art gallery housed in a former tea pavilion. One of the latest features added to the park is the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Playground. The modern playground, one of three playgrounds in the Kensington Gardens, is themed around Peter Pan.

More Sights
Also popular are the Long Water, a large lake, the Round Pond (a favorite with remote controlled boat enthusiasts) and the sunken garden, a beautiful garden created in 1909 and based on a Tudor garden in Hampton Court. The park also features statues, among them 'Physical Energy' by George Frederick Watts (1908), 'Rima' by Jacob Epstein (1925) and 'Arch' by Henry Moore (1979).

Credits : http://www.aviewoncities.com/

St. James's Palace

2008-06-06T08:45:00.000-07:00

Long the home of many of the most famous kings and queens of England, St. James's Palace was built by King Henry VIII between 1531 and 1536.

This magnificent brick palace became the principal royal residence in 1702 when Whitehall Palace was destroyed by fire and Queen Anne moved to St. James. Even today, it’s still the “official” residence of the sovereign, even though Buckingham Palace became the new chief residence after Queen Victoria ascended to the throne in 1837. Many ceremonial court functions continue to be held here.

The History of St. James's Palace
When Henry VIII commissioned the palace in the year 1530, he chose to build it on the site of a former leper hospital for women, which had been named in honor of St. James. The original red-brick Tudor-style palace surrounded four courtyards and was one of the grandest buildings of its time, containing a Chapel Royal, gatehouse, and some State apartments. Visitors can still see Henry’s insignia at the gatehouse.

Important events in history were played out at St. James. Henry VIII’s illegitimate son died here. Anne Boleyn stayed at St. James the night after her coronation and her initials, intertwined with Henry’s, can be found on a number of fireplaces scattered throughout the palace.

It was at St. James that Mary Tudor signed the treaty surrendering Calais. Elizabeth I lived here for some time and the future Charles II and James II were both born and baptized at St James's, as were Mary of York (Mary II), Anne of York (Queen Anne) and James Francis Edward Stuart.

Queen Victoria’s wedding to Albert took place at the palace in 1840 and more than a century later, Queen Elizabeth II made her first speech here.

After the Fire
Much of the south and east portions of the palace were destroyed by fire in 1809. However, the state rooms were restored by 1813. Shortly thereafter, the four brothers of George IV were presented with four houses within the walls of the palace, including Clarence House, which is now home to Charles, Prince of Wales.

The state apartments were enlarged by famed British architect Sir Christopher Wren and later embellished by William Kent and still contain some stunning pieces of antique furnishings and tapestries from that era.

St. James's Palace Today
St. James is still a working palace though the monarchy has not lived there in quite some time. Besides Charles and his sons, the palace is also home to Princess Alexandra and Sir Angus Ogilvy and housed the Queen Mother until her death just a few years ago.

St. James's Palace is not open to the general public though visitors can view the Household Cavalry guards on the premises, like those seen at Buckingham Palace. Adjoining Queen’s Chapel is open to the public at specified times.

Credits : http://www.aviewoncities.com/

Westminster Abbey

2008-06-06T08:31:00.000-07:00

The Westminster Abbey, located near the Houses of Parliament, is more a historical site than a religious site. Since 1066, every royal coronation, with the exception of Edward V and Edward VIII has taken place in Westminster Abbey.

Burial Ground
The abbey also serves as the burial ground for numerous politicians, sovereigns and artists. The abbey is stuffed with graves, statues and monuments. Many coffins even stand upright due to the lack of space. In total approximately 3300 people are buried in the Church and cloisters. Some of the most famous are Charles Darwin, Sir Isaac Newton and David Livingstone.

History
The history of the abbey starts in 1050, when King Edward The Confessor decided to build an abbey. Only a small part of this original Norman monastery, consecrated in 1065, survived. The only representation of this original building is shown on the Bayeux Tapestry.Most of the present building dates from 1245 to 1272 when Henry III decided to rebuild the abbey in the gothic style. Large parts were later added: the Chapel of Henry VII was added between 1503 and 1512, while the two West Front Towers date from 1745. The youngest part of the abbey is the North entrance, completed in the 19th century.

The Nave
The abbey’s nave 1. is England’s highest. In the nave you find the Grave of the Unknown Warrior, a World War I soldier who died on the battlefields in France and was buried here in French(!) soil. Nearby is a marble memorial stone for Winston Churchill. His body is not, like many fellow prime ministers, buried in the abbey, but in Bladon.

The Cloyster
The Cloyster were 2. built between the 13th and 15th century. They were completely rebuilt after the Great Fire of 1298. The cloyster were used by the monks for meditation and exercise.

Chapter House
The beautiful octagonal Chapter house 3. is one of the largest of its kind in England. It has an original tile floor dating from 1250 and 14th century murals.

Henry VII Chapel
The Henry VII Chapel 4. (aka Lady Chapel), built 1503-1512, is one of the most outstanding chapels of its time, with a magnificent vault. It features a large stained glass window, the Battle of Britain memorial window. The window, which dates from 1947, commemorates fighter pilots and crew who died during the Battle of Britain in 1940.

London's Big Ben

2008-06-06T07:58:00.000-07:00

The Houses of Parliament and the clock tower are one of London's iconic landmarks. The building is known as the Palace of Westminster and the clock tower is sometimes called St Stephen's Tower, although it is commonly referred to as Big Ben. Big Ben is actually the massive bell inside the clock tower, which weighs in at over 13 tons (13,760 kg).

The Clock Tower
The clock tower looks spectacular at night when the four clock faces are illuminated. Each dial is 23 feet square, the minute hand is 14 feet long and the figures are two feet high. A special light above the clock faces is also illuminated, letting the public know when parliament is in session.
Big Ben's timekeeping is strictly regulated by a stack of coins placed on the huge pendulum.

Big Ben has rarely stopped and even after an incendiary bomb destroyed the Commons chamber during the Second World War. The clock tower survived and Big Ben continued to strike the hours.

The chimes of Big Ben were first broadcast by the BBC on 31 December 1923, a tradition that continues to this day.

Big Ben History
The Palace of Westminster was destroyed by fire in 1834. In 1844, it was decided that the new buildings for the Houses of Parliament should include a tower and a clock. The bell was refashioned in Whitechapel in 1858 and the clock first rang across Westminster on 31 May 1859.

Just two months later, Big Ben cracked. A lighter hammer was fitted and the bell rotated to present an undamaged section to the hammer. This is the bell as we hear it today.

Why Ben?
The origin of the name Big Ben is not known, although two different theories exist.

The first is that is was named after Sir Benjamin Hall, the first commissioner of works, a large man who was known affectionately in the house as 'Big Ben'.

The second theory is that it was named after the champion of the prize ring at that time, Benjamin Caunt. Also known as 'Big Ben' this nickname was commonly bestowed in society to anything that was the heaviest in its class.

Map of Austria

2008-06-06T07:55:00.000-07:00

Buckingham Palace

2008-06-06T07:17:00.000-07:00

Buckingham Palace has served as the official London residence of Britain's sovereigns since 1837.
It evolved from a town house that was owned from the beginning of the eighteenth century by the Dukes of Buckingham. Today it is The Queen's official residence, with 775 rooms.

Although in use for the many official events and receptions held by The Queen, areas of Buckingham Palace are opened to visitors on a regular basis.

The State Rooms of the Palace are open to visitors during the Annual Summer Opening in August and September. They are lavishly furnished with some of the greatest treasures from the Royal Collection - paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens, Vermeer, Poussin, Canaletto and Claude; sculpture by Canova and Chantrey; exquisite examples of Sèvres porcelain; and some of the finest English and French furniture in the world.

History
George III bought Buckingham House in 1761 for his wife Queen Charlotte to use as a comfortable family home close to St James's Palace, where many court functions were held. Buckingham House became known as the Queen's House, and 14 of George III's 15 children were born there.

In 1762 work began on remodelling the house to the King's requirements, to designs by Sir William Chambers, at a cost of £73,000.

George IV, on his accession in 1820, decided to reconstruct the house into a pied-à-terre, using it for the same purpose as his father George III.

As work progressed, and as late as the end of 1826, the King had a change of heart. With the assistance of his architect, John Nash, he set about transforming the house into a palace. Parliament agreed to a budget of £150,000, but the King pressed for £450,000 as a more realistic figure.

Nash retained the main block but doubled its size by adding a new suite of rooms on the garden side facing west. Faced with mellow Bath stone, the external style reflected the French neo-classical influence favoured by George IV. The remodelled rooms are the State and semi-State Rooms, which remain virtually unchanged since Nash's time.

Many of the pieces of furniture and works of art in these rooms were bought or made for Carlton House (George IV's London base when he was Prince of Wales), which was demolished in 1827.

The north and south wings of Buckingham House were demolished and rebuilt on a larger scale with a triumphal arch - the Marble Arch - as the centrepiece of an enlarged courtyard, to commemorate the British victories at Trafalgar and Waterloo. By 1829 the costs had escalated to nearly half a million pounds. Nash's extravagance cost him his job, and on the death of George IV in 1830, his younger brother William IV took on Edward Blore to finish the work. The King never moved into the Palace. Indeed, when the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire in 1834, the King offered the Palace as a new home for Parliament, but the offer was declined.

Queen Victoria was the first sovereign to take up residence in July 1837, just three weeks after her accession, and in June 1838 she was the first British sovereign to leave from Buckingham Palace for a Coronation. Her marriage to Prince Albert in 1840 soon showed up the Palace's shortcomings. A serious problem for the newly married couple was the absence of any nurseries and too few bedrooms for visitors. The only solution was to move the Marble Arch - it now stands at the north-east corner of Hyde Park - and build a fourth wing, thereby creating a quadrangle.

Blore, the architect in charge, created the East Front and, thanks largely to his builder, Thomas Cubitt, the costs were reduced from £150,000 to £106,000. The cost of the new wing was largely covered by the sale of George IV's Royal Pavilion at Brighton. Blore added an attic floor to the main block of the Palace and decorated it externally with marble friezes originally intended for Nash's Marble Arch. The work was completed in 1847.

By the turn of the century the soft French stone used in Blore's East Front was showing signs of deterioration, largely due to London's notorious soot, and required replacing. In 1913 the decision was taken to reface the façade. Sir Aston Webb, with a number of large public buildings to his credit, was commissioned to create a new design. Webb chose Portland Stone, which took 12 months to prepare before building work could begin. When work did start it took 13 weeks to complete the refacing, a process that included removing the old stonework.

The present forecourt of the Palace, where Changing the Guard takes place, was formed in 1911, as part of the Victoria Memorial scheme.The gates and railings were also completed in 1911; the North-Centre Gate is now the everyday entrance to the Palace, whilst the Central Gate is used for State occasions and the departure of the guard after Changing the Guard. The work was completed just before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

Credits : http://www.royal.gov.uk/

When to go to Austria

2008-06-06T07:03:00.000-07:00

Visiting Austria at any time of year is a great experience, but remember that the season will influence what you can do. Summer is the obvious time for hiking, mountain biking and lake swimming, but ski conditions also make Austria a fantastic place for winter breaks. Festivals take place year-round, but the majority of music festivals are held between May and October.

For warm weather, aim for the months between April and October, although these two months can be changeable. Crowds and prices peak in the July and August high season, when temperatures can also climb to uncomfortable levels and many famous institutions close down, including the opera, the Spanish Riding School and the Vienna Boys' Choir. Consequently, June and September are often the best times for city trips.

You'll find cities less crowded in winter and (except in ski resorts and over Christmas and Easter) hotel prices lower, although it can get bitingly cold. Winter sports are in full swing from mid-December to late March, with the high season over Christmas and New Year and in February. Alpine resorts are very quiet or close down from late April to mid-June, and in November and early December.

Weather
Austria lies within the Central European climatic zone, though the eastern part of the country has a Continental Pannonian climate, with low rainfall, hot summers and mild winters. The Alps have high precipitation, short summers and long winters, and visitors should be prepared for all temperatures there. Seasons are distinct. Summer falls between June and August and has the highest temperatures, but also the highest levels of rainfall. Winter can bite hard, especially in December, January and February. Spring and autumn bring changeable weather, but quite often the most comfortable temperatures.

History of Austria

2008-06-06T06:07:00.000-07:00

Austria flaunts its heritage in exuberant fashion. Vienna's bombastic Habsburg palaces and Salzburg's baroque splendour are great, but dig deeper and you'll unearth Stone Age settlements, Roman ruins and vibrant medieval festivals. You barely need to look for culture here - it waltzes right up to you.

This land of dizzying peaks, cobalt lakes and rushing rivers creates a breathtaking backdrop for outdoor pursuits. Whether you want to climb mountains in Tyrol or carve up the slopes in the Alps, freewheel along the Danube or paddle the raging Inn River, Austria's your one-stop shop!

Pre-20th-Century History
In its early years, the land that became Austria was invaded by a succession of tribes and armies using the Danube Valley as a conduit - Celts, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, Huns, Avars, Slavs all came and went. Charlemagne established a territory in the Danube Valley known as the Ostmark in 803, and the area became Christianised and predominantly Germanic.

By 1278 the Habsburgs had gained control and this mighty dynasty managed to rule Austria right up until WWI. Although the Habsburgs were not averse to using a bit of muscle, they preferred less barbaric ways of extending their territory and so Austria gradually expanded thanks to judicious real estate purchases and some politically-motivated marriages. One such marriage produced two sons: the eldest became Charles I of Spain, who mutated three years later into Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire; the younger son, Ferdinand, became the first Habsburg to live in Vienna and was anointed ruler of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. In 1556, Charles abdicated as emperor and Ferdinand I was crowned in his place. Charles' remaining territory was inherited by his son, Phillip II, splitting the Habsburg dynasty into two distinct lines - the Spanish and the Austrian.

In 1571, when the emperor granted religious freedom, the vast majority of Austrians turned to Protestantism. In 1576, the new emperor, Rudolf II, embraced the Counter-Reformation and much of the country reverted, with a little coercion, to Catholicism. The attempt to impose Catholicism on Protestant areas of Europe led to the Thirty Years' War, which started in 1618 and devastated much of Central Europe. Peace was finally achieved in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia. For much of the rest of the century, Austria was preoccupied with halting the advance of the Turks into Europe. Vienna nearly capitulated to a Turkish siege in 1683 but was rescued by a Christian force of German and Polish soldiers. Combined forces subsequently swept the Turks to the southeastern edge of Europe. The removal of the Turkish threat saw a frenzy of Baroque building in many cities, and under the musical emperor Leopold I, Vienna became a magnet for musicians and composers.

In 1740, Maria Theresa ascended the throne and ruled for 40 years - a period generally acknowledged as the era in which Austria developed as a modern state. During her reign, control was centralised, a civil service was established, the army and economy were reformed and a public education system was introduced. But progress was halted when Napoleon defeated Austria at Austerlitz in 1805. European conflict dragged on until the settlement at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15. Austria was left with control of the German Confederation but suffered upheaval during the 1848 revolutions and eventual defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. This led to the formation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867 under emperor Franz Josef and exclusion from the new German empire unified by Bismarck.

Modern History
Austria began the 20th century in prosperity but its expansionist tendencies in the Balkans and its annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 led to the assassination of the emperor's nephew in Sarajevo in June 1914. A month later, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, the Russians came to the Serbians' aid and the slaughter of WWI began in earnest.

At the conclusion of the war, the shrunken Republic of Austria was created and forced to recognise the independent states of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and Yugoslavia which had previously been under the control of the Habsburgs. The new republic suffered economic strife, which led to an upsurge in Nazi-style politics. Austria's embrace of fascism meant that German troops met little opposition when they invaded in 1938 and incorporated Austria into the Third Reich. Consequently, Austria was bombed heavily in WWII and by 1945 it had been restored to its 1937 frontiers by the victorious Allies. Occupying American, British, French and Russian troops remained entrenched for a decade before withdrawing and allowing Austria to proclaim its neutrality.

In the post-war years Austria worked hard to overcome economic difficulties and established a free trade treaty with the European Union (EU, then known as the EEC) in 1972. Apart from the election of former German army officer and UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim to the Austrian Presidency in 1986, Austrian politics became a rational zone of consensus rather than conflict. Increases in Eastern European immigration following the collapse of the Eastern Bloc resulted in the rise of the right-wing anti-immigration Freedom Party in the late 1980s. Concern among moderates has been exacerbated by the recent influx of refugees from the former Yugoslavia.

The Austrian people heartily endorsed their country's entry into the EU in a referendum in 1994 and formally joined the Union on 1 January 1995.

Recent History
In elections in 2000, the right-wing Freedom Party came in just behind the Social Democrats, forming a ruling coalition with the moderate right People's Party. Freedom Party leader and alleged Nazi sympathiser Jörg Haider handed the leadership to Susanne Riess-Passer, seen as less extreme, but the EU imposed sanctions on Austria despite the move. The Danube flooded in August 2003, sanctions were lifted in September because they were seen as counterproductive, and in November the People's Party made sweeping electoral gains at the Freedom Party's expense, but was nevertheless obliged to form a governing coalition with the latter despite divisions. Pension reforms, restitution for Holocaust crimes and strict asylum laws are some of the other issues that have dominated public debate.

In the first half of 2006 Austria held the temporary, six-month EU presidency and attempted to reinvigorate the establishment of the European Constitution. Domestically the nation was confronted by two controversial criminal matters. In March, historian David Irving was imprisoned for three years for denying the Holocaust (he was released and deported in December). In August year 18-year-old Natascha Kampusch, who had disappeared in 1998, escaped from the underground cell where she had been imprisoned. Her captor, Wolfgang Priklopil, subsequently committed suicide. Austria went to the polls later in the year and a coalition government of the centre-left Social Democrats (SPO) and the conservative People's Party was formed in January 2007, with the SPO's Alfred Gusenbauer as chancellor.

Meanwhile, Jörg Haider was elected as leader of the new Alliance for Austria's Future. After a split in the Freedom Party he once led and the defection of the majority conservatives to Haider's new political party, the far-right politician looks confident to stay in office.

Credits : http://www.travelswise.com/

Stonehenge

2008-06-06T05:15:00.000-07:00

The most famous prehistoric monument in the world, and now a world heritage site, Stonehenge stands alone in the vast empty tract of Salisbury plain. Its origins date back nearly 5,000 years and it has been home to pagan religion and spiritual worship, not to be mention public debate ever since. What was this vast collection of stones intended for? Was it observatory of the moon, a temple to the sun, or an elaborate cemetery? Who were the people who carried and carved these 40 ton rocks? Come and unlock the secrets for yourself and marvel at this remarkable and mysterious feat of ancient engineering and design.

STONEHENGE INFORMATION RESOURCE "It's more than just a pile of old rocks in a field"

Stonehenge seems to have been constructed in three phases, covering the period from 2200B.C. to 1200B.C. It was magnificent feat of megalithic engineering. The gigantic sarsen stones, great sandstone boulders arranged like doorways and capped with stone lintels, weigh up to 50 tons and were dragged to the site from the Marlborough Downs 30km (20 miles) to the north, in a time when wheeled vehicles were unknown. The bluestones forming the smaller pillars came from Prescelly in South West Wales, over 161km (100 miles) away.

The 'how' of Stonehenge construction is intriguing enough, but the important question is why the prehistoric builders should labour for centuries to build such an awe inspiring monument. As far back as the 18th century Stonehenge investigators realised that the stones that make up Stonehenge are aligned to the midsummer sunrise.

From the centre of the circle, facing out through one of the massive arches, to the ceremonial entrance, it is possible to see the sun rise directly over the great pillar known as the Heel Stone.

Detailed analysis has shown a whole series of astronomical alignments which would explain why Stonehenge was built in this precise spot, regardless of the problems posed by bringing stones from distant quarries.

Many experts now believe that Stonehenge was an astronomical observatory, built under the instructions of astronomer-priests who used it to chart the movements of the celestial bodies and draw up a calendar for planting, harvesting and breeding cattle. If the sun and moon were regarded as gods, this would explain the grandeur of a structure that could have served as a religious centre, a place of worship and ritual. Cremated human remains have been found at the site, which might indicate human sacrifice, or possibly the funeral rites of revered leaders.

THE FORCE OF THE LEY CENTRES
From the earliest times there has been a belief in the magical properties of the stones themselves and some modern investigators are convinced that all stone circles are linked by lines of force that carry a powerful psychic energy.

The idea is rooted in the 1920's discovery by Alfred Watkins that prehistoric sites seem to be rooted in straight lines across the countryside. He called these lines 'leys' and decided they were tracks used by prehistoric man, using the sited as landmarks. Since then the idea has grown up that leys are invisible lines of earth energy, felt by people who are more in tune with the rhythms of nature than modern man and marked by sacred sites.

A spot like Stonehenge where several leys converge is like a powerhouse storing huge amounts of energy, energy that could have been harnessed by the builders to accomplish what seems to be an impossible task.

Remarkable numbers of UFO sightings have been recorded at megalithic sites, especially Stonehenge, where film-makers making a pictorial record of the stones in 1977 captured strange flying objects giving off brilliant lights, one hovering motionless over the site for 50 minutes. Some ley enthusiasts maintain that extra-terrestrial visitors are attracted by the elemental force of the ley centres

Credits : http://www.stonehengetours.com/